Feelings of Wellbeing in Adolescents
Transkript
Feelings of Wellbeing in Adolescents
Journal of Teacher Education and Educators Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi Cilt 1, Sayı 1, 2012, 81-105 81 Feelings of Wellbeing in Adolescents: A Cross-cultural Study of Finnish and Japanese Students Ergenlerde İyi Oluş Duyguları: Finli ve Japon Öğrenciler Üzerinde Kültürler Arası Bir Araştırma Tuula Merisuo-Storm1 , Soili Keskinen2 , Mariko Matsumoto3 Kikuyo Aoki4 and Misuzu Nagai5 Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate how students studying in sixth and eighth grade in very different contexts evaluate their own psychological wellbeing. The study was conducted with 697 Finnish and 721 Japanese students. The study aimed to explore if there were differences between the wellbeing of Finnish and Japanese male and female sixth and eighth grade students. The same questionnaire was used as a measure in both countries. According to the results, the Japanese students more often suffered from psychosomatic symptoms, symptoms of impulsiveness, social anxiety, and problems of controlling emotions than Finnish students. The Finnish students more often admitted to problems in their social relationships. The eighth graders revealed more symptoms than the sixth graders and the girls more than the boys. The smallest wellbeing score was obtained by Japanese eighth grade girls. Keywords: Wellbeing, Finnish student, Japanese student Öz Bu araştırmanın amacı farklı okullarda altıncı ve sekizinci sınıfta okuyan öğrencilerin kendi psikolojik iyi oluşlarını nasıl değerlendirdiğini araştırmaktır. Araştırma 697 Finli ve 721 Japon öğrenci ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırma ile Finli ve Japon, erkek ve kız, altıncı ve sekizinci sınıf öğrencilerinin iyi oluşları arasında farklar olup olmadığını ortaya koymak amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmada kullanılan anket her iki ülkede de ölçme aracı olarak kullanılmıştır. Sonuçlara göre Japon öğrenciler Finli öğrencilerden daha sık olarak psikosomatik belirtilerden, düşünmeden hareket etme belirtilerinden, sosyal kaygıdan ve duyguları kontrol etme problemlerinden yakınmışlardır. Finli öğrenciler ise sıklıkla sosyal ilişkilerindeki problemlerini itiraf etmişlerdir. Sekizinci sınıflar altıncı sınıflardan ve kızlar erkeklerden daha fazla sayıda psikosomatik belirti göstermiştir. En az iyi oluş puanı Japon sekizinci sınıf kız öğrenciler tarafından alınmıştır. Anahtar Sözcükler: İyi oluş, Finli öğrenci, Japon öğrenci Tuula Merisuo-Storm: Adjunct professor, PhD, Department of Teacher Education, University of Turku, Finland. For correspondence; e-mail: tuumer@utu.fi 2 Soili Keskinen: Professor of Education, PhD, Department of Teacher Education, University of Turku, Finland. 3 Mariko Matsumoto: Professor of Clinical Psychology, PhD, Center for Developmental clinical Psychology And Psychiatry, University of Nagoya, Japan. 4 Kikuyo Aoki: Associate Professor, PhD, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, University of Ochanomizu, Japan. 5 Misuzu Nagai:Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, University of Ochanomizu, Japan. 1 82 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. Introduction Youth is a transitional stage towards adulthood. In puberty, the challenges related to physical, emotional, and cognitive development may endanger young people’s mental wellbeing. In addition, relationships with parents, peers and teachers can be a hazard for their health (Mash & Wolfe, 2005). It is therefore important for mental health professionals to investigate and try to understand various factors that affect a person’s wellbeing in order to prevent and respond appropriately to young people’s mental dysfunctions. Roberts et al. (1998) reviewed 52 studies that attempted to estimate the prevalence of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders and found that the samples that included the preadolescents (ages 6 to 13 years) shared a mean prevalence of 13% with disorders, while the adolescent samples (over 13 years) had a mean prevalence of 17%. Depression is the most common mental disorder for female adolescents and about 20% of them have symptoms of depression during the teenage years. At the same time, they often have eating problems or are distressed (Birmaher & Axelson, 2001; Stice et al., 2001). The number of symptoms of depression identified by girls themselves increases significantly from the age of 13 to the age of 18. Girls’ depression, eating problems, antisocial behaviour, and use of drugs change during these years and when one symptom increases it can produce another symptom (Measelle et al., 2006). Therefore it is important to focus on different symptoms that interact with each other. Numerous studies related to young people’s state of mind, health and school experiences have been conducted in Finland. The aim of the study conducted in 2006 (Luopa et al., 2006) was to investigate adolescents’ depression, use of alcohol and drugs, and the risks they involve. The results of the study show that girls more often than boys suffer from mild or semi-difficult depression. In addition, girls mentioned more often specific symptoms such as tiredness and sleeping problems. To improve their state of mind they commonly sought support from their friends, parents and other relatives. Talking with parents seemed to have a positive effect on depression. By contrast, physical threat, lack of friends, or learning disabilities proved to be factors that increased depression. A longitudinal study (Luopa et al., 2005) conducted in western Finland investigated over 10 years lower secondary school students’ and upper secondary school students’ living conditions, school work, health and health habits. The results of the study show that lower secondary school students’ headaches, depression and tiredness increased until the year 2001, decreased for a few years and have more recently again become more common. The female students all had symptoms more often than the male students. It seems that in Finland school children’s state of health is now becoming worse than ever as the number of psychosomatic symptoms, especially tiredness and faintness, has increased during the last decade. One of the main reasons for this may be that the number of students who find school work too stressful has increased Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi 83 during recent years (Kämppi et al. 2012). In Japan, the number of adolescents’ psychosomatic symptoms, such as headaches, stomach cramps, and lack of appetite have also increased during the last decade (Takahashi et al., 2002). A comparative study conducted in Japan and in Sweden on fourth to ninth grade students showed that in Japan the students in the fourth to ninth grades more often displayed the symptoms mentioned above than their peers in Sweden. Furthermore, the Japanese adolescents more frequently had mental symptoms and were less satisfied with their lives than Swedish adolescents. This suggests that cultural differences may have an impact on the nature and the quality of symptoms. Factors related to urban life may also have an effect on students’ wellbeing (Landsford et al., 2005). Subjective Wellbeing A person’s mental health is assessed to be good when he or she is able to manage normally in his or her everyday life. A person’s ability to adjust to living conditions and lead a well-balanced life is closely related to feelings of wellbeing (Vaillant, 2003). Mental wellbeing can be defined as a subjectively felt comprehensive state of satisfaction and positive feeling. It includes both cognitive and emotional aspects. Examples of positive emotional feelings are joy, interest, and confidence. How content a person in general is with his or her work, school, or human relationships has a significant effect on his or her satisfaction with life (Ben-Zur, 2003). On the other hand, subjective wellbeing includes a person’s evaluation of his or her life at any one moment as well as during longer periods of time (Diener et al., 2003). Individual differences in personality and feelings of subjective wellbeing can be seen early in life and always include a genetic component (Diener & Lucas, 1999). Subjective wellbeing has been proved to be heritable (Vaillant, 2003). However, research has also shown that several other factors, such as a person’s temperament, ability to adjust to different circumstances (Sohlberg et al., 2002), efforts to reach goals, and human relationships (Luopa et al., 2006) have an effect on their level of wellbeing. Nevertheless, no specific model has been found to combine these different factors (Diener et al., 2003). Subjective wellbeing and happiness are also dependent on a person’s quality of life. The standard of wellbeing has been proved to be high in countries where the citizens have many rights, opportunities for education, and generally good socioeconomic status (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1991). A person’s various personal and social resources in human relationships and life in general have a significant effect on his or her wellbeing; however, material resources have proved to be less important. Ben-Zur (2003) suggests that subjective wellbeing is only marginally related to external factors such as age, gender, citizenship, and external behaviours. Internal factors for wellbeing are, for instance, self-esteem, selfcontrol, optimism, and an extrovert personality. 84 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. Additionally, family characteristics may be related to the wellbeing of adolescents. For example, positive correlations have been found between adolescents’ and their parents’ subjective wellbeing (Ben-Zur 2003). Also, Larson and Richards (1994) suggest that the model related to cognitions, values, attitudes, and emotions one has adopted as a young child still exists in adolescence. Parents are important role models for their children and give them a pattern of emotions and social skills. The quality of these patterns may have an effect on how an adolescent feels and how he or she, for instance, is able to solve problems that threaten his or her wellbeing. However, as all family members have individual personalities, each of them may react to different situations in a different way (Ben-Zur, 2003). School has an essential role in a young person’s life, especially as it balances his or her living through social interaction. In addition, the teachers and the climate of the school have an effect on an adolescent’s wellbeing. A study conducted by Vuille and Schenkel (2001) showed that school has an influence on several factors related to an adolescent’s wellbeing, and this influence seems to strengthen when a student moves from primary school to secondary school. Especially in Japan, school has been found to emphasise significantly cognitive, moral/religious, civic/national, physical, aesthetic and musical areas. There the aim is whole person education (Cummings, 2003). Eating and weight problems may become risk factors for a young person’s wellbeing. One study showed that only 12% of girls and 17% of boys were satisfied with their body. (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001). In another study (Presnell et al., 2004) it was found that 24–46% of girls and 12–26% of boys were dissatisfied with their body. Specific reasons for the differences between the genders have not been found but there are clearly different social pressures related to girls’ and boys’ bodies (Cafri et al., 2005). Girls have been found to be most satisfied when they are slim, whereas boys want to be muscular (Saarilehto et al., 2003). A person’s conception of his or her body has a central role in the development of eating problems (Cafri & Thompson, 2004). Several physical and mental factors, such as low self-esteem and depression, and socio-cultural pressure can increase an adolescent’s bodily dissatisfaction (Cash, 2002; Paxton et al., 2005). Other factors that may increase dissatisfaction are body size, ethnic group, and relationships with peers and parents (Paxton et al., 2006). Presnell et al. (2004) found that a negative state of mind increases young males’ but not young females’ bodily dissatisfaction. Although depressive symptoms have not been found to show a significant relationship to increases in girls’ body dissatisfaction (Stice & Whitenton, 2002), a low ability to control emotions is likely to predict increasing dissatisfaction (Ohring et al., 2002). Such factors are most likely to remain stable during adolescence, with developmental factors and changes in roles appearing to have little influence on them (Paxton et al., 2006). Based on the research findings and approaches mentioned above, the purpose of the present study was to investigate how Finnish and Japanese girls and boys in sixth Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi 85 and in eighth grade assessed their feelings of wellbeing. A further goal was to find out what symptoms are connected to students’ dissatisfaction with their lives. The focus of the study is on psychic and psychosomatic symptoms as well as on problems related to social relationships, body image, and control of emotions, together with symptoms related to depression, social anxiety, and impulsiveness. In addition, the study aims to show the connections between symptoms and problems, young people’s general state of mind and incidents that they have found depressing. Finally, the study attempts to clarify what kind of supportive networks adolescents have: with whom they discuss the problems related to studying, friendship, and family. Method Participants The participants of the study included 1,418 (697 Finnish and 721 Japanese) students between the ages of 12 and 15. Finland and Japan were selected because both countries have been top level achievers in international studies of student achievement. Approximately one half of the sample was boys (N = 704) and one half girls (N = 714); half were studying in the sixth grade (N = 643) and the other half in the eighth grade (N = 775). The sample was discretionarily collected. The Japanese data were collected in cities. Therefore the Finnish data were also collected in cities and large towns in southern and western Finland. That is why one cannot do generalisations for the whole population, only for urban adolescents. Adolescent Wellbeing Questionnaire The questionnaire was developed in Japan by Nagai and colleagues and was translated into Finnish. It contained items related to several different aspects of adolescents’ wellbeing (Nagai et al., 2007). The first set of items includes 41 statements relating to mental and physical wellbeing (Tables 1, 4, 5 and 6) and eating and overweight problems (Table 2). The second set of items includes nine questions related to the adolescents’ state of mind and control of their emotions (Table 3). The third set of items includes seven questions related to social relationships and problems in them (Table 7). The items are rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). A factor analysis of the first set of items was conducted in order to assess the structure of the questionnaire. The statements were combined into three sum variables: mental symptoms, symptoms related to eating and overweight problems, and physical symptoms. The mental symptoms were then separated into three sum variables: depression, impulsiveness, and social anxiety and also factor analysed. Altogether there are seven sum variables with α-rates varying from medium to good and correlations between the sum variances varying from fair to strong (Tables 1–7). Local Localsociety societyand andculture culture 86 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. Research Research Curriculum Curriculum Table symptoms variables andand correlations withwith sum sum variable and αand α Table1.1.1.Physical Physical symptoms variables and correlations with sum variable Physical symptoms variables correlations variable coefficient coefficient coefficient Physicalsymptoms symptoms Physical rr Myneck neckisisoften oftenstiff stiff My .65 .65 feelweak weak I Ifeel .63 .63 occasionallyhave haveaaheadache headache I Ioccasionally .63 .63 Myheart heartcan cansuddenly suddenlystart starttotobeat beatfaster faster My .59 .59 havebreathing breathingdifficulties difficulties I Ihave .55 .55 WhenI’m I’mnervous nervousI Iget getstomach stomachcramps cramps When .45 .45 α=.63 α=.63 Table2. Eatingand and overweight variables and correlations with sum variableand Table 2.2.Eating Eating and overweight variables and correlations with overweight variables and correlations with sumsum variableand α coefficient coefficient α coefficient Eatingand andoverweight overweight Eating Gettingoverweight overweightworries worriesme. me. Getting α=.83 rr α=.83 .87 .87 I’mafraid afraidthat thatI’m I’mgetting gettingtoo toofat. fat. I’m I really wish I could lose more weight I really wish I could lose more weight .86 .86 .85 .85 I’mafraid afraidthat thatI Ieat eattoo toomuch much I’m avoidfood foodwith withlots lotsofofcalories. calories. I Iavoid .81 .81 .66 .66 trytotoavoid avoideating eatingalthough althoughIIam amhungry. hungry. I Itry .59 .59 **p<.001 **p<.001 Table3.3.Problems Problemsinincontrolling controlling emotions emotions variables variables and and correlations correlations with with sum sum variable variable Table Table 3. Problems in controlling emotions variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient Table 3. Problems in controlling emotions variables and correlations with sum and α coefficient and α coefficient variable and α coefficient Problemsinincontrolling controllingemotions emotions Problems Problems in controlling emotions I’mnot notable abletotocontrol controlmy myanger. anger. I’m I’m not able to control my anger. canstay staycalm calmeven evenwhen whensomething somethingdisturbing disturbinghappens. happens. I Ican I can stay calm even when something disturbing happens. α=.69 rr α=.69 r α=.69 .59 .59 .59 .58 .58 .58 I give up too easily. .58 It’s hard for me to cope when something bad happens. .56 I’m able to control my feelings. .54 Feelings control my behaviour. .54 I consider myself tough. .53 I always try to be composed .50 It’s hard for me to cheer up. .47 Table 4. Social anxiety variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient Social anxiety r It’s hard for me to join conversations when people are discussing. .56** I feel useless. .56** α=.80 I consider myself tough. .53 I consider myself tough. .53 I always try to be composed .50 Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi I always try to be composed .50 It’s hard for me to cheer up. .47 It’s hard for me to cheer up. .47 87 Table 4. Social anxiety variables and correlations with sum variable and α Table 4. Social anxiety variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient coefficient Table 4. Social anxiety variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient Social anxiety Social anxiety It’s hard for me to join conversations when people are discussing. It’s hard for me to join conversations when people are discussing. I feel useless. I feel useless. I can’t express myself clearly enough. I can’t express myself clearly enough. It’s hard for me to make new friends It’s hard for me to make new friends I don’t know how to behave in front of a big group. I don’t know how to behave in front of a big group. I’m shy of expressing my opinions in front of people. I’m shy of expressing my opinions in front of people. I don’t believe that my dreams will come true. I don’t believe that my dreams will come true. I don’t enjoy doing anything. I don’t enjoy doing anything. I have nothing to be proud of. I have nothing to be proud of. ** p<.001 ** p<.001 r α=.80 r α=.80 .56** .56** .56** .56** .52** .52** .50** .50** .49** .49** .45** .45** .45** .45** .45** .45** .44** .44** Table 5. Depression variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient Table5.5.Depression Depression variables variables and Table and correlations correlationswith withsum sumvariable variableand andααcoefficient coefficient Depression Depression Nowadays I get unhappy for no reason. Nowadays I get unhappy for no reason. I weep often I weep often Lately all things have made me worried. Lately all things have made me worried. I worry what people think about me I worry what people think about me I feel lonely I feel lonely When something bad happens to me I can’t get it out of mind. When something bad happens to me I can’t get it out of mind. As soon as something bad happens to me it shows on my face As soon as something bad happens to me it shows on my face It’s sometimes hard for me to fall asleep It’s sometimes hard for me to fall asleep I can’t keep my room tidy. I can’t keep my room tidy. **p<.001 **p<.001 r α=.81 r α=.81 .66** .66** .66** .66** .62** .62** .60** .60** .55** .55** .55** .55** .42** .42** .35** .35** .22** .22** 88 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. Table 6. Impulsiveness variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient Table 6. Impulsiveness variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient Table 6. Impulsiveness variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient Impulsiveness Impulsiveness It’s impossible for me to concentrate properly on anything. It’s impossible for me to concentrate properly on anything. I lose my temper for no reason at all. I lose my temper for no reason at all. I’m reluctant to try anything new. I’m reluctant to try anything new. I keep forgetting my homework or things I have promised to I keep forgetting my homework or things I have promised to do. do. Things don’t work no matter how hard I try. Things don’t work no matter how hard I try. When I lose my temper I want to break things. When I lose my temper I want to break things. I give up easily because I feel that the task is too hard for me. I give up easily because I feel that the task is too hard for me. I often quarrel about minor things. I often quarrel about minor things. **p<.001 **p<.001 r α=.82 r α=.82 .58** .58** .55** .55** .51** .51** .50** .50** .50** .50** .49** .49** .48** .48** .46** .46** Table 7. Problems in social relationships variables and correlations with sum variable Table Problems in insocial social relationships relationships variables variables and Table 7.7.Problems and correlations correlationswith withsum sumvariable and α coefficient and α coefficient variable and α coefficient Problems in social relationships. Problems in social relationships. I love my family. I love my family. I have a friend with whom I can talk about anything. I have a friend with whom I can talk about anything. I have a friend to whom I can tell my secrets. I have a friend to whom I can tell my secrets. I have lots of friends. I have lots of friends. I feel comfortable with my family. I feel comfortable with my family. I feel I have no place at home where I can relax. I feel I have no place at home where I can relax. My parents don’t understand me. My parents don’t understand me. r α=.73 r α=.73 .71 .71 .67 .67 .66 .66 .61 .61 .61 .61 .50 .50 .48 .48 As well as the multiple choice items there were two ‘yes or no’ questions which aimed to gain information about the incidents that create depression and a possible need for psychological help. In addition, the participants were asked to assess their recent positive or negative state of mind on a scale from 0–100 (100 indicating feeling well). In the last section of the questionnaire three problems were described (related to studying, friendships and family). Related to each problem the participants were asked to name one person with whom they had talked about this problem or with whom they would like to talk about the problem in the future if it arose. The participants chose these persons from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor of the afternoon club; (3) school nurse; (4) subject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandparents; (8) I (9) some other person. from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) sup (9) some other person. from a given list: (1) class teac subject teacher; (5) friend(s); 89(6) family; ( Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi The data were analysed with the SPSS 12.0.1 subject program. The distribution was(6n teacher; (5) friend(s); (9) someclub; other(3) person. from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2)Analysis supervisor of the afternoon school nurse; (4) (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p <Analysis .05) but the sample (9) wassome large (N person. = 1,418). Then other The data were analysed 12.0.1 program. do not (5) talkfriend(s); with anyone; (9) some other person. subject teacher; (6) and family; (7) grandparents; (8) with I do the not SPSS talk with anyone; and The dis analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, and Cronbach’s alph The data were analysed with the SPSS 12.0.1 program. (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p < .05) but the sample was large (N = Analysis (9) some other person. Analysis were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analysis. The afternoon extraction of (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p (2) < .05) but theof sample was larg Analysis from a given list: (1) class teacher; supervisor clu analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, analysis, andSPS C The data werefactor analysed The data were analysed with the SPSS 12.0.1 program. The distribution wasthe notwith the from a 1,418). given (1)analysed classused teac analysis was subject performed thebut of squares method. The rotation method Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor datalist: were w normal (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, panalysis, <by .05) the sample was large (N =The Then teacher; (5)sum friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandparents; (8)analysis I dothe no were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analysis. Th (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p < .05) but Analysis from a given list: (1) class teach variance rotation analysis, because Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, Cronbach’s subject teacher; friend(s); (6 it was felt that different related toand wellbeing might well cor were used. Yes/no factors questions were analysed by(5) frequency (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p <ana .0 (9) some other person. analysis was performed by the sum of squares method. The rotation analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficie The data were analysed with the SPSS 12.0.1 program. The distribution was not normal alpha-analysis were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analysis. The subject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6 (9) some other person. from a of given list: (1) teacher; (2) supe each other. analysis was by performed bysquares the sum ofclass squares method. The analysis, Spearman’s correlatio extraction of the factor analysis was performed the sum method. The robecause it was that (N different factors related to wellbeing were used. Yes/no questions were analysed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p < .05)rotation but the sample wasfelt large = (9) 1,418). Then variance some other person. tation method used was skew-rotation because it was felt that different factors related subject teacher; (5)used. friend(s); (6) family; (7) rotation because it was felt that different factors related to we were Yes/no questions Analysis each other. analysis was performed by the sum of squ analysis, Spearman’s coefficient, factorother. analysis, and Cronbach’s alpha-analysis to wellbeing correlation might well correlate with each Analysis (9) some other person. Results from a givenThe list: (1)other. class analysed teacher; (2) of the club; (3) each analysis wasafternoon performed by the data were withsupervisor the SPSS program. The dist rotation because it12.0.1 wasoffelt different fa were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analysis. The extraction thethat factor Analysis from afriend(s); given few list:(6) (1)family; class symptoms teacher; (2) supervisor of the aftern The data were analysed w Results On average comparatively physical were reported (Table 8) subject teacher; (5) (7) grandparents; (8) I do not talk rotation because it was that (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p each <list: .05) but theteacher; sample was largefelt(Nof =th Results from a given (1) class (2) supervisor other. analysis was performed by the sum of squares method. The rotation method used was skewThe data were analysed w On average comparativelysubject few physical symptoms were reported (Table(7) 8). grandparents; Japateacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p <(8).0 Analysis adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic symptoms than Finnish adolescents (9) some other person. Results each other. analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, and Cr nese adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic symptoms than Finnish adolescents On average comparatively few physical symptoms were repo subject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandpare rotation because it was felt that different factors related to wellbeing might well correlate with p < (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, .0 (9) some other person. 2 from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor of the after analysis, Spearman’s correlatio The data were analysed with the SPSS p p= =.02, == .004); however, differences between thecountwo countries (F1,14055.48, = 5.48, .02, .004); however, thethe differences between thefrequency two On average comparatively few physical symptoms wew were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by analysis. The adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic symptoms than Finni (9) some other person. Results each other.tries were small (Table 8). The girls reported analysis, Spearman’s correlatio psychosomatic symptoms more subject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandparents; (8 were used. Yes/no questions we (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p often < .05) but adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic symptoms tha Analysis (Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more often than the the boys Results 2 analysis was performed by the sum of squares method. The rotation .004); the differences between than the boys (F1,1405 =5.48, 47.66,pp=< .02, .001, ==.033), andhowever, theOn eighth graders more often average comparatively fewthe phys were used. Yes/no questions wetw Analysis some other person. 2 2 (9) analysis was performed by the analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficien The data were analysed with the SPSS 12.0.1 program. The distributio = .004); however, the differences betwee 5.48, p = .02, than the sixth graders (F1,1405 = 42.35, p < .001, = .029). On average comparativel 47.66, p < .001, = .033), and the eighth graders more often than the sixth grader rotation was felt that differenthad factors related to wellbeing m (Table because 8). The it girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more adolescents slightly more psychosom Analysis Results analysis was performed byoften the The data were analysed with the SPSS 12.0.1 program. T Very few symptoms of depression were reported (Table 8). The number of the 2 rotation because it was felt that were used. questions were < .05) but the Yes/no sample large (Nanalysed = more 1,418 adolescents slightly (Table 8).p2The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms mob = .029). 42.35, p(Kolmogorov-Smirnov, < .001, other. 2 was had each The data were analysed with themore SPSS 12.0.1 prot On average comparatively few physical symptoms were reported 8). Japanese 47.66, p < .001, = .033), the eighth graders often than 5.48, p .02, .004); however, the symptoms was the same in both countries (F1,1404 =and 1.92, p= = .17,(Table == .001). The rotation because it was felt that (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p < .05) but the by sample was large Analysis 2 and 2coefficient, each other. analysis was performed the sum of squa analysis, Spearman’s correlation factor analysis, Cronbach = .004); how 5.48, p = .02, 47.66, p <the .001, = .033), the eighth morenumb ofte girls more often displayed symptoms than boys(F1,1404 =and 145.90, p< .001, = sample symptoms of were reported (Table 8). The 2depression (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, padolescents <other. .05) butgraders wa adolescents had slightlyVery morefew psychosomatic symptoms than Finnish (Fthe = (Table 8). with The girls reported psychosoma 1,1405 = .029). 42.35,analysis, p < .001, data each Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, The were analysed the SPSS 12.0.1 program. .094), and the eighth graders more often than the sixth graders (F1,1404 = 43.31, p < 2 analysed 2 different rotation because it was felt that fac were used. Yes/no questions were by frequency analysis. The extra The girls reported .029). 42.35, p < .001, = (F =(Table 1.92, p28). = coefficient, .17, = .001). The was the Results same in both countries 1,1404 correlation analysis, Spearman’s factor anp == .004); however, differences between countries were small 5.48, p = .001, .02, 2 symptoms .030). Overall, thethe girls in eighth grade most often of 47.66, p<two <showed .001, symptoms =the .033), and the eighth Very few symptoms ofthe depression were reported (Table were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analy (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p .05) but sample was larg Results 2 each other. analysis was performed by the sum of squares method. Thewere rotation method 47.66, .001, .033), and( depression (Table 8). Very few symptoms of depression reported On average comparatively few physical symptoms were repor = 145.90, p2 <boys .001, 2 ==by .094), and often displayed symptoms than the boys (F1,1404 were used. Yes/no questions were analysed frequenc = (Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more often than the (F 1,1405 symptoms was the same in both countries (F = 1.92, p = .17, = .029). 42.35, p < .001, Results 1,1404 analysis was performed by the sum of squares method. The ro analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, The study groups again showed a few impulsiveness symptoms (Table The On average comparativel rotation because it had was felt thatthe different factors related to8). wellbeing might w slightly more psychosomatic Finnis 42.35, ppsum <symptoms .001, 2=2than symptoms was same in both countries (F1,1404 =.029). 1.92, pO = 2graders more adolescents often than the sixth graders (F = 43.31, < .001, = .030). analysis was performed by the of squares method 1,1404 .033), the eighth graders more often than the sixth graders (F = 47.66, p <adolescents .001, = in Japanand more often reported symptoms of impulsiveness than the Finnish Very few symptoms of depression On average comparatively 1,1405 = 145.90, p < .001, often displayed symptoms than the boys (F 1,1404 rotation because it was felt that different factors related to wellb were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analy Resultsadolescents had slightly more each = other. adolescents (F1,1402 37.56, .001, The eighth graders showed impulVery few symptoms 5.48, =< .02, 2=showed =.026). .004); however, the differences between the pof tw< =8). 145.90, often displayed symptoms than the boys (F in eighth gradeppmost often symptoms of depression (Table rotation because it was felt that different factors related 1,1404 adolescents had slightly = .029). 42.35, p < .001, 2girls symptoms was same both countries more than the sixth graders (F =in43.31, p <more .001, other. analysis was graders performed by average the sumthe The r pofp1,1404 =<squares .02, 2method. .004); how siveness symptoms moregraders ofteneach than theoften sixth (F1,1402 =5.48, 75.95, .001, == few On comparatively physic (Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more often symptoms was the same in both The study groups again showed a few impulsiveness symptoms (Tabl graders more often than the sixth graders (F = 43.31, p 2 each other. Very.051), few and symptoms depression were reported (Table 8). The ofrelated the girls of slightly often than the boys (F1,1402 =different 7.29, .01, == the 5.48, p pnumber =<.02, .004); how often displayed symptoms than the boys (F girlsmore inrotation eighth grade most often showed symptoms of1,1404 depression because itadolescents was felt that to(Tab wel had slightly more psychosoma (Table 8). factors The girls reported p Results 2 .005). Anadolescents interaction was found country and gender; the Japanese girls re47.66, p girls <between .001, = .033), and the eighth graders more often th in Japan more often reported symptoms of impulsiveness than th often displayed symptoms than in eighth grade most often showed symptoms of depress 2 The girls reported p 1.92, pagain = .17,showed (Table = .001). The girls symptoms was the same in both countries (F 2a 8). 2more The study groups impulsiveness sym Results each other. 1,1404 = graders than the graders 5.48, pphysical =pmore often =pfew .004); however, theand di 47.66, < .001, sixth = .033), On average few symptoms were reported (T ported impulsiveness symptoms mostcomparatively often <.02, .01, = .006, Table 8). 2= 8.13, 2(F1,1402 Results panxiety <=study .001, groups = .026). eighth graders imp adolescents symptoms (F42.35, The again showed a often few impulsiven .029). p 37.56, <of.001, graders more theand six 2 showed 2The 1,1402 = average, few social were (Table 8). The Japa47.66, pphysical <and .001, eighth =than adolescents in =average Japan often reported symptoms of.033), impulsiv On comparatively symptoms were often displayedOn symptoms than the boys 145.90, pgirls < reported .001, The =few .094), the in8).eighth grade often sym 1,1404 adolescents had(Fslightly moremore psychosomatic symptoms than Finnish (Table girls =2 showed .029). ado 42.35, p reported <most .001, 2psychosomati nese adolescents showed anxiety symptoms moreofoften than Finnish adolesOn average comparatively physical sympto adolescents ingraders Japan often reported symptoms ofan Very symptoms depression were 8 girls eighth grade often = 75.95, pfew < reported .001, =(Table .051), symptoms moresocial often thanfew the sixth (Fmore 2 in 2 most 2the 1,1402 adolescents had slightly psychosomatic symptoms than Results =however, 37.56, <more .001, anxiety =2 pgroups .026). The eighth grade (F 2 1,1404 =the .029). 42.35, <.033), .001, study again showed =The 43.31, p <p the .001, =.030). Overall, the graders more than =the sixth 1,1402 5.48, p adolescents .02, .004); differences between the two cou 47.66, pThe <social .001, = and eighth centsoften (F 1,1409 19.77, p=<graders .001, (F ==.014). girls showed symptoms Very few symptoms of 2 2g 2 psychosomatic adolescents slightly symptom =7.29, 37.56, p .01, <more .001, .005). =1.92, .026). The eight adolescents (F1,1402 The study groups again = p = .17, symptoms was the same both countries (F 2 inhad 1,1402 slightly more often than the boys (F = p < = An interaction 1,1404 physical we moregrade than the boys (F 1,1409 =5.48, 24.27, p=< average .001, ==comparatively .017) thegraders eighth graders pOn .02, than .004); however, the differences adolescents infew Japan more oftenbetween reporte Very few symptoms of girls in eighth most often showed of depression (Table 8). =more 75.95, p< .001 symptoms more often the and sixth 1,1402 (Table 8). Thesymptoms girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more 42.35, 2 =(F.029). symptoms was the often same than in botth 2p < .001, 5.48, p = .02, = .004); however, the differences often thanbetween the sixthcountry graders (F 1,1409 = 41.32, p < .001, = .028). An interaction was adolescents in Japan more of = 75.95, p symptoms more often than the sixth graders (F displayed symptoms than the boys (F1,1404 = 145.90, psymptoms and gender; the Japanese girls reported impulsiveness 2b 1,1402 2 < .001, adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic tha (Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more The study groups 47.66, again often showed a 2 few impulsiveness symptoms (Table 8).symptoms The = 37.56, p < .001, adolescents (F symptoms was the same in both = 7.29, p < .01, = .005). A slightly more often than the boys (F 1,1402 1,1402 p < .001, = .033), and the eighth graders more often than the sixth shown between country and grade:2 the Japanese eighth Very gradersfew mostsymptoms often reported of depression often displayed symptoms than 2 (Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptom adolescents =the .01, p = slightly often than the boys 1,1402p=< = 8.13, p <reported .01, =symptoms .006, Table (Fof =(F7.29, 43.31, p37.56, <between .001, more often than sixth graders (F 1,1402 1,1402 1,1404 5.48, .02, 22the .004); however, thereported differences anxiety (Fgraders 1,1409 = 10.86, < .01, =8). .008; 9). adolescentssymptoms in Japan more often of impulsiveness than Finnish 47.66, <p=more .001, =symptoms .033), and the(F eighth graders often more often than the more sixth grader 2 p often symptoms than( country and gender; theTable Japanese girls impulsivene = .029). 42.35, pbetween < .001, symptoms was thedisplayed same inoften both countries 2 graders more than the six 47.66, p <22.001, showed = .033), and themore eighth graders mor symptoms often than(Tabl the 2 between country andreported gender; the Japanese girls reported imps in42.35, eighth grade most often symptoms of depression (Table 8). The girls psychosomatic symptoms mor .001, = .026). The eighth graders showed impulsiveness adolescents (F1,1402 = 37.56, p <girls .029). p< .001, ==slightly (F1,1402 p< .01,of .006, Table 8). = more often than the boys (F graders more often than the six 1,1402 Very few= 8.13, symptoms depression were (Table 8). The often displayed the boys (F girlssymptoms inreported eighth than grade most often 22 1 = .029). 42.35, p < .001, 2 The study groups again showed a few impulsiveness sym slightly more often than the boy = 8.13, p < .01, = .006, Table 8). (F 1,1402p < .001, = .033), and2the eighth graders more often 47.66, Very symptoms of were reported (T = 75.95, p < .001, depression = in .051), and the the girls symptoms more often than the sixth graders (F 2 often between country and gender; Japanese girls eighth grade most 1,1402few symptoms was the same in bothgraders countries (F1,1404 = 1.92, p =sixth .17, =again .001 The study groups more oftenof than the graders (F Very symptoms depression repo adolescents in Japan more reported symptoms ofwere impulsiv 2 2fewoften between country and gender; th 2 =(F 42.35, p< .001, same = 1.92, p = . symptoms the in both countries (F = 7.29, pwas < .01, =.029). .005). An interaction was found slightly more often than the boys (F1,1402 The study groups again = 8.13, p < .01, = .006, Table 8). 1,1402 adolescents in more of p1,1404 <Japan .001, 22 =sym .09 often displayed symptoms than the boys (F1,1404 girls in eighth grade most often showed 2 = 145.90, 1.9 symptoms waspthe same(Fin countries (F1,1404 =few 37.56, < .001, =both .026). The adolescents (FVery = 8.13, p <eighth .01, graders ==.006 1,1402 1,1402 symptoms ofadolescents depression were reported in Japan more of(T between country and gender; the Japanese reported impulsiveness symptoms most = often 145.90, . oftengirls displayed symptoms than the boys (F1,1404 2p < = 37.56, pa.0 adolescents (F The (F study groups again showed graders more often than the sixth graders = 43.31, p < .001, = 1,1402 1,1404 Analysis 90 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. Table 8. The results of psychosomatic symptoms and symptoms of depression, Table 8. The results of psychosomatic symptoms and symptoms of depression, impulsiveness and social anxiety impulsiveness and social anxiety Psychosomatic symptoms Girls Boys Total 6th grade Finland 8thgrade Total 6th grade Japan 8thgrade Total M Sd M Sd M Sd 2.0 0.6 1.8 0.6 1.9 0.6 2.3 0.6 2.0 0.6 2.2 0.6 2.2 0.6 1.9 0.6 2.1 0.6 2.1 0.9 1.8 0.7 2.0 0.8 2.4 0.8 2.1 0.8 2.3 0.8 2.3 0.8 2.0 0.8 2.1 0.8 M Sd M Sd M Sd 6th grade 2.6 0.7 2.2 0.7 2.4 0.7 Finland 8thgrade 2.9 0.8 2.2 0.6 2.6 0.8 Japan from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) superviso Total 6th grade 8thgrade Total subject 2.6 teacher; (5) 2.8 2.9 friend(s); 2.8 (6) family; (7) gran 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.9 (9) some2.1other person. 2.2 2.5 2.3 0.6 from 0.9 0.8 (1) class 0.8 teacher; (2) superv a given list: 2.5 2.4 2.7 2.5 0.8 subject 0.9 teacher; 0.8 (5) friend(s); 0.9 (6) family; (7) g M Sd M Sd M Sd 2.0 0.7 2.0 0.6 2.0 0.6 2.3 0.7 2.3 0.7 2.3 0.7 2.2 2.3 2.7 2.5 0.7 0.8 0.7 (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p0.8< .05) but the samp 2.2 2.1 2.5 2.3 Analysis0.7 0.7 0.8 analysis,0.8Spearman’s correlation coefficient, fac 2.2 2.2 2.6 2.4 The data0.8were analysed with the SPSS 1 0.7 0.8 0.8 were were used. Yes/no questions analysed by fre Depression Girls Boys Total m a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor of the afternoon club; (3) school nurse; (4) Analysis Impulsiveness Finland Japan th th th th person. (9) some other 6 grade 8 grade Total 6 grade 8 grade Total with were analysed bject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandparents; (8) IThe do data not talk with anyone; andthe SPSS 12.0 Girls some other person. Boys Analysis Total (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p < .05) but the sa anxiety Finland Japan analysis was performed by sum of squares m The data were Social analysed with the distribution notthe normal 6th SPSS grade 12.0.1 8thgradeprogram. Total The 6th grade 8thgradewasTotal analysis, correlation coefficient, Girls M 2.3 2.3 Spearman’s 2.7 2.5 rotation because it was felt that different factors r olmogorov-Smirnov, p < .05) but 2.2 the sample was2.3 large (N = 1,418). Then variance Sd 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 used. Yes/no were analysed by M 2.1 2.2 2.1 were 2.0 2.5 questions 2.3 each and other. alysis, Spearman’sBoys correlation coefficient, factor analysis, Cronbach’s alpha-analysis Sd 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 was performed by the sum of squares Total M 2.1 2.3 2.2 analysis 2.6 re used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analysis.2.2 The extraction of2.4 the factor Sd 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 rotation because it was felt that different factor alysis was performed by the sum of squares method. The rotation method used was skewResults each other. On average adolescents hadrelated few problems related to eating and overweight. On average comparatively few physical sy ation because it was felt thatthe different factors to wellbeing might well correlate with The girls mostresults of the of problems (Table 9). The number of the eating and overweight Tablehad 9. The eating and overweight problems adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic sy problems p = .82). The girls more often Eatingwas andthe same in both countries Finland (U = 247098.0, ResultsJapan th th th 2 overweight grade grade grade Total had these problems than6the boys8(F1,1407 =Total 236.82, .001,8 ==.144) andhowever, they had the differe 5.48, 6pthpgrade =< .02, .004); Girls M 2.5 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.8 2.6 On average comparatively them more often in eighth grade than in sixth grade (U = 52128.5, p < .001), whereasfew physical Results Sd 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0 The girls 1.0 reported 1.0 (Table 8). psychosomatic sy the boys these in eighth 1.7 grade than1.9in sixth1.8 = Boysdid not have M 2.0 problems 1.7 more 1.8 adolescents had2 slightlygrade more(Upsychosomatic On average comparatively few physical symptoms were reported (Table 8). Japanese Sd 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 56426.5, p = .09). However, on average eighth graders more often had eating andeighth grade 47.66, p < .001, = .033), and the 2 Total M 2.2 2.2 2.2 5.48, 2.0 2.3 2.2 p = .02, = .004); however, the diffe overweight problems than sixth graders (F1,1407 = 5.37, p < .02, = .004). Japanese 2 olescents had slightly more Sd psychosomatic symptoms than Finnish 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0(F1,1405 = = .029). 42.35, p1.0 < .001,adolescents 1.0 girls most often reported eating and overweight problems (F1,1407 = 13.45, p < .001, (Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic 8, p = .02, 2 ==.009). .004); however, the differences between Very the two wereofsmall fewcountries symptoms depression were ch other. 47.66, p <than .001, 2boys = .033), and =the eighth gra able 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more often the 1,1405countries (F1,140 symptoms was the same in(F both 2 = .029). 42.35, pthe < .001, graders 66, p < .001, 2 = .033), and the eighth graders more often sixth (F1,1405 oftenthan displayed symptoms than the=boys (F1,1404 = Very few symptoms of depression w 35, p < .001, 2 = .029). graders more often than the sixth graders (F1,140 Total M Sd Boys M Sd M Sd 2.2 analysed 2.2 with the 2.6 SPSS 2.4 The2.3data were 12.0.1 program. The d 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 analysis, Spearman’s correlation coe 91 Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi was (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, pÖğretmen < .05) but the sample large (N were used. Yes/no questions were ana analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, and analysis was performed by the sum o Table 9. The results of eating andYes/no overweight problems overweight problems were used. questions were analysed by frequency analysis. T rotation Eating and Finland Japanbecause it was felt that differ by the sum of squares overweight 6thanalysis grade 8thwas grade performed Total 6th grade 8thgrade Totalmethod. The rotatio each other. Girls M 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.6 rotation because it2.6 was felt 2.4 that different Sd 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 factors 1.0 related to wellbeing Total 2.1 0.7 2.0 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.9 1.8 each other. 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 Results from (2) 2.2 a given 2.2 list: (1) 2.2 class teacher; 2.0 2.3 supervisor 2.2 of the afternoon c 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 On average comparatively subject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandparents; (8) I few do n Results of the afternoon club; (3) school nurse; (4) from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor adolescents had slightly more psych (9) some other person. average comparatively few physical symptoms problems of emotions came up(8) (Table Japanese adolescents subject teacher;Some (5) friend(s); (6)controlling family;On (7) grandparents; I do10). not talk with anyone; andwere rep 2 = .004); 5.48, p = .02, had them more often than Finnish adolescents (F1,1405 = 108.98, p < .001, = .072). however, adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic symptoms than Fin (9) some other person. The girls had more often experienced emotional control and state8). of mind problems (Table The girls reported psycho Analysis 2 5.48, p = .02, = .004); however, the differences than the boys (F1,1405 = 50.57, p < .001, = .035) and eighth graders experiencedbetween the data(U= were analysed with 12.0.1 The 47.66, pSPSS < .001, 2graders =program. .033), and thedie these problems more than sixthThe graders 55879.5, p< .05). Inthe Japan, eighth (Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more ofte Analysis more often reported problems of controlling emotions sixthbut graders (U = 54307.0, (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p than < .05) the.001, sample was large (N = 42.35, p< 2 = .029). 2 The data wereInanalysed with 47.66, the was notmore normal <12.0.1 .001, program. = .033),The anddistribution the these eighthtwo graders p < .01). Finland there wasSPSS nopsignificant difference between groups (U often than analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, and C Very few symptoms = 57290.5, p = p .28). (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, < .05) 42.35, but the large (N = 1,418). Then varianceof depre = .029). p <sample .001, 2was were used. Yes/no questions were analysedwas by the frequency T symptoms same inanalysis. both coun analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, and alpha-analysis Table10. 10. Theresults results of the theVery problems controlling emotions fewofsymptoms of Cronbach’s depression were reported (Table Table The of problems controlling emotions analysis was performed by the often sum of squares symptoms method. The displayed thanrotation the bo Control of Finland were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analysis. TheJapan extraction of the factor = 1.92, p = .17, symptoms (F th th was the same in th both countries th 1,1404 emotions 6rotation grade because 8 grade it Total 6 grade 8 grade Total was felt that different factors related to wellbeing often than the sixth gra Girls M sum2.5 2.6 method. 2.6 The rotation 2.9 graders 3.0moreused 2.9 was analysis was performed by the of squares method skewoften displayed symptoms than Sd 0.6 other.0.7 0.7 0.7 the boys 0.7 (F1,1404 0.7 = 145.90, p < .001, each Boys M different 2.3 2.3 related 2.3 to wellbeing 2.6 girlsmight in2.8eighth grade mostwith often showe rotation because it was felt that factors well2.7 correlate graders more (F0.6 1,1404 = 43.31, p < .001 Sd 0.6 0.6 often 0.6than the 0.6sixth graders 0.6 Total M 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.9 2.8 groups again show The study each other. girls in eighth of depression (Ta Sd 0.6 Results 0.7 grade 0.7most often 0.7 showed 0.7 symptoms 0.7 adolescents in Japan more often re Table 10. The results of the problems of controlling Theaverage study groups emotions again few showed a few impulsiveness sy physical On average the adolescentsOn assessed theircomparatively relationships with their friendssymptoms and fam- were repo Table 11. The results of the problems in social relationships = 37.56, p < .001 adolescents (F Results Control of 1,1402 Japan ily to be good, and there6seemed toFinland be few ingrade theseoften social relationships (Table of impuls inproblems Japan more reported symptoms th adolescents th emotions grade 8thgradehad Total 8thgrade adolescents psychosomatic Social Finland slightly6 more Japan Total symptoms than Finn 11). Finnish adolescents had problems than Japanese adolescents inJapanese their On average comparatively few physical symptoms were reported (Table 8). symptoms often than the sixth g Girls 2.6 2.9 3.0 2.9 Total th slightly th more 2more relationships M 62.5 grade 82.6 grade Total 6th grade 8thgrade =.004); 37.56, p < .001, = .026). The eighth the gradt adolescents 20.7 1,1402 Sd 0.6 0.7 0.7 graders 0.7 .02,(F however, the differences between relationships 5.53, p =0.72.2 .019, ==2.2 .004), and experienced Girls (F1,1393 M =5.48, 2.2 p 1.9eighth 2.2 2.1 M psychosomatic 2.3 2.3 symptoms 2.3 2.6 Finnish 2.8 adolescents 2.7often than adolescents had Boys slightly more than (F1,1405 more the=boys (F1, Sd social 0.9 relationships 0.8more often 0.9 sixth 0.7slightly 0.7 0.7 more problems in Sd their than (F1,1393 18.81, p 75.95, < p <often .00 symptoms than the sixth graders 0.6 0.6 The 0.6 0.6graders 0.6 0.6=(F 1,1402 = (Table 8). girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more M 2.0 2.0 2.1 2Boys M 2.4 2.52.2 2.52.1 2.7 2.9 2.2 2.8 5.48, p = .02, .004);However, however, the differences between the two countries were small .001,Total ==.013). there was no difference in the number of the girls’ and the between country and gender; the Japa Sd 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 Sd 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 2 0.8 =0.7 7.29, p < .01, 2 = .005) slightly more the boys 0.7 (F1,1402 =than .033), and graders 47.66, .001,often 0.7 boys’ problems. Total M 2.1 p <2.2 2.2 2.0 the eighth 2.2 2.1 more2 often than t (Table 8). The girls reportedSdpsychosomatic often than the boys (F1,1405 = 8.13, p0.7 < .01, = =.006, Tab (F1,1402 0.9 0.8symptoms 0.8 more0.7 0.7 2and gender; the Japanese girls reported impulsive between country = .029). 42.35, p < .001,insocial Table 11. The and results the relationships .033), theof gradersinmore often than the sixth graders (F1,1405 = 47.66, p < .001,Table 2 =11. The results ofeighth theproblems problems social relationships 2 = 8.13, p < .01, = .006, Table (F1,1402 Social Finland Japan 8). were reported (Table Very few symptoms of depression 2 relationships 6th grade 8thgrade Total 6th grade 8thgrade Total = .029). 42.35, p < .001, Girls M 2.2 2.2was the2.2same in1.9both countries 2.2 2.1 symptoms (F 1,1404 = 1.92, p = .17, 0.9 0.8were reported 0.9 0.7 Very few symptoms Sdof depression (Table 0.7 8). The 0.7 number of the Boys M 2.0 2.2 2.1 2.0 2.2 2.1 often displayed symptoms 0.8 than the boys (F 0.8 = 145.90, p < .001, 0.8 0.8 symptoms was the same in Sd both countries (F1,1404 =0.8 1.92, p = .17, 20.7= .001).1,1404 The girls more Total M 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.0 2.2 2.1 graders more often graders (F0.71,1404 = 43.31, p < .001 2 Sd 0.8than the 0.7 sixth 0.7 often displayed symptoms than the0.9 boys (F0.8 1,1404 = 145.90, p < .001, = .094), and the eighth girls in eighth grade most often showed symptoms of depression (Ta graders more often than the sixth graders (F1,1404 = 43.31, p < .001, 2 = .030). Overall, the The study groups again showed a few impulsiveness sy girls in eighth grade most often showed symptoms of depression (Table 8). adolescents in Japan more often reported symptoms of impulsi from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor of th subject teacher; (5) friend(s);questions. (6) family; (7)answers grandparents The show (9) some other person. Experiences of depressing life events were measured with three categor subject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandpare 92 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. (9) some other person. practically the same number o questions. The answers showed that the adolescents in the two countries h (9) some other person. = .08). In Finland, 34% and Analysis practically the same number of depressing incidents during the last month (χ2 = Experiences of depressing life events were measured with three categorical ‘yes Analysis resulting in depressive feeling The data were analysed with39% theinSPSS 12.0.1 program. The distribu or no’ questions. TheInanswers showed that the adolescents thethe two countries had = .08). Finland, 34% and in Japan of adolescents had experienc Analysis data were analysed with the SPSS 12.0.1 progra these feelings more often tha experienced practically the same number ofThe depressing incidents during the last month (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, pduring < .05) but the sample was large (N = 1,4 resulting in depressive feelingsThe the last month. The girls seemed to pro ha data were analysed with the SPSS 12.0.1 (χ2 = 3.05, df = 1, p = .08). In Finland, 34% and in Japan 39% of the adolescents had (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p <often .05)than but sixth the sample was graders (χ2 = analysis, Spearman’s correlation factor and more often than boys (χ2coefficient, =during 44.01,the 1, panalysis, < .001), andCronb eight experienced these a life feelings event resulting in depressive feelings month. The (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, pdflast <=.05) but the sample w analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analy the matter with mo girls seemed to havewere experienced these feelings more often than boys (χ2 = 44.01, df =someone used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequency analysis. The ex often than sixth graders (χ2 = 15.13, df = 1, p correlation < .001). ). coefficient, In addition, factor the girls analysis, Spearman’s 1, p < .001), and eighth graders morewere often than Yes/no sixth graders (χ2 =were 15.13,analysed df = 1, pby < frequencyan used. questions consult a psychologist (χ2met =a analysis performed bymatter the sum of squares method. The rotation the matter withwas someone more often than boys. They also more often expre .001). ). In addition, the girls had discussed the with someone more often than were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequen analysis was performed by the sum squares T often had discussed the matte boys. They also more often expressed a need to consult a psychologist (χ2 =of27.48, df method. rotation because it was felt thatdfdifferent factors related to wellbeing migh consult a psychologist (χ2 = 27.48, = 2, p < .001). Furthermore, the eight analysis was performed by the sum of squares method = 2, p < .001). Furthermore, the eighth graders more the matter rotation because itoften washad feltdiscussed that different factors to .001). Similarly, in related both cou each other. often discussed with than the (χ2related = 24. with someone than had the sixth gradersthe (χ2matter = 24.64, df =someone 1, pit<was .001). ingraders both rotation because feltSimilarly, thatsixth different factors 2 eachthe other. .02, = 1, p < countries the.001). adolescents had discussed problems with anotherperson person (( ==.02, df df Similarly, in both each countries the adolescents had discussed the problem other. = 1, p < .90). Likewise, there was no difference in the adolescents’ need for counselling counselling in theintwo Results person ((2==1.03, .02, df df==2,1,p p< < .90). Likewise, thereforwas no difference thecou ad in the two countries .60; Table 12). Results On average comparatively few physical symptoms were reported On average, all the adolescents assessed their state2 of mind to be good. The Finnfor counselling in the two countries ( = 1.03, df = 2, p < .60; Table 12). Results On average few 13), physical ish sixth graders expressed the best estimations of their comparatively state of mind (Table and symptoms adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic symptoms Finnish oa Table 12.than Frequencies On average comparatively few adophysical sympto the Finnish adolescents altogether expressed better estimations than the Japanese adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic and a need to symptoms consult a p 2 .004);The however, the differences lescents (F1,1383 =5.48, 20.54,pp=< .02, .001, ==.015). boys assessed their state ofbetween mind the two c adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic sympto Table 12. Frequencies of depression incidents, discussions about incident .02, 2= =.016) .004); the differences betw to be better than the girls (F1,1383 =5.48, 22.14,pp=< .001, and however, the sixth graders to Depressing (Table 8). to The girls areported psychosomatic symptoms more often tha and a need consult psychologist 2 th .004); however, the differences be better than eighth graders (F1,1383 =5.48, 38.64,pp=< .02, .001, ==.027). incident 6 (Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptomsgrm 2 p < .001, = .033), andduring the eighth graders more often the 36 si Those who had 47.66, experienced a depressing incident the last month evaluated Girls Yesthan Depressing Japan (Table 8). Finland The symptom 2 girls reported psychosomatic th th th th 47.66, p <(Table .001, =However, .033), and the6 eighth graders o 64 their state of mind toincident be worse than the others of them the Finngrade 8 13). grade Total grade 8NogrademoreTo 42.35, p < .001, 2 6= .029). 2 Missing 0 = .033), and the eighth graders mo 47.66, p < .001, ish adolescents estimated mind to be better than the Japanese adolescents Girls their state Yes of 39 53 4 42.35, 36 p < .001, 482 = .029).43 Very No few the symptoms of 51 depression reported (Table 8).205 64 estimated 60 46 (U = 28576.5, p < .05). Furthermore, boys their mindBoys to be betterYes 2 state57ofwere No 79 42.35, < .001, = .029). 0 p few 1graders 0 of 1 Very were than the girls (U = 25143.5, pMissing < .001). Moreover, sixth symptoms who haddepression experienced a 1 reporte 2 1 Missing = 1.92, p = .17, = symptoms was the same in both countries (F 1,1404 30 Yes 31 3. Very few symptoms ofgraders depression were repo depressing incident Boys estimated their state of 20 mind to be better than26eighth withYes30 Total 28 No symptoms 79 was the 69 same in74both countries 70 70 = 1.92, 7 (F1,1404 72 similar experiences often (U = 26959.0, p <symptoms .05). 1The adolescents who(Fhad not= experienced displayed than the boys 145.90, p <No.001, 2 = Missing 0 0 = 1. symptoms was0 the same01,1404 in both countries (F 1,1404 Missing 0 any depressing incidents the last month of mind to often displayed symptoms than the boys = 145.90, Total duringYes 28 evaluated 40 their state 34 34 be(Fbest 1,1404 42 23 = 43.31, p < .001, graders more often than the sixth graders (F 1,1404 65 No 72 displayed 57 = 145.6 (Table 13). Finnish adolescents evaluated their state of 60 mind to be65 better than often symptoms than theJapanese boys (F 1,1404 Discussion with = 43.31 graders more often than the sixth graders (F 1,1404 Missing 0 0 1 1 adolescents (U = 73822.5, < .001). The girls theshowed boys who had not experienced someone 6th gr girls inpeighth grade mostand often symptoms of depression1 (Table 8 graders more often than the sixth graders (F = 43 1,1404 depressing incidentsDiscussion during thewith last girls monthinevaluated their most state of mind to be equally eighth Finland grade often showed symptoms depr Japan of The study groups againth showed a few impulsiveness sympto th as good (U = 86587.5, p = .053). someone 6th grade 8 grade Totaloften6showed grade symptoms 8thgrade ofTo girls in eighth grade most d The study groups again showed a few impulsiv adolescents in Japan more often reported symptoms of impulsivene The study groups again showed a few impu adolescents in Japan more often reported symptoms o adolescents (F1,1402 = 37.56, p < .001, 2 = .026). The eighth graders sh adolescents in Japan more often reported symptom adolescents (F1,1402 = 37.56, p < .001, 2 = .026). The ei symptoms more often than the sixth graders (F1,1402 = 75.95,2 p < .001, 2 adolescents (F1,1402 = 37.56, p < .001, = .026). The symptoms more often than the sixth graders2 (F1,1402 = 75.9 slightly more often than the boys (F1,1402 = 7.29, p < .01, = .005). An i symptoms more often than the sixth graders (F1,1402 = 7 slightly more often than the boys (F1,1402 = 7.29, p < .01, between country and gender; the Japanese girls reported impulsiveness s slightly more often than the boys (F1,1402 = 7.29, p < .0 between country and gender; the Japanese girls reported i (F1,1402 = 8.13, p < .01, 2 = .006, Table 8). between country and gender; the Japanese girls report (F1,1402 = 8.13, p < .01, 2 = .006, Table 8). (F1,1402 = 8.13, p < .01, 2 = .006, Table 8). Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi Table12. 12.Frequencies Frequencies of of depression Table depression incidents, incidents,discussions discussionsabout aboutincidents, incidents, and a need to consult a psychologist and a need to consult a psychologist Depressing incident Girls Yes No Missing Boys Yes No Missing Total Yes No Missing 6th grade 36 64 0 20 79 1 28 72 0 Finland 8thgrade 48 51 1 31 69 0 40 60 0 Total 43 57 0 26 74 0 34 65 1 6th grade 39 60 1 30 70 0 34 65 1 Japan 8thgrade 53 46 1 30 70 0 42 57 1 Total 47 52 1 30 70 0 39 61 0 Discussion with someone Girls Yes No Missing Boys Yes No Missing Total Yes No Missing 6th grade 25 73 2 15 82 3 20 78 2 Finland 8thgrade 39 55 6 25 70 5 32 63 5 Total 33 63 4 20 76 4 26 70 4 6th grade 22 58 20 13 68 19 17 63 20 Japan 8thgrade 36 42 22 13 60 27 25 50 25 Total 30 48 22 13 64 23 22 56 22 Need for discussion Girls Yes No Missing Boys Yes No Missing Total Yes No Missing 6th grade 10 90 0 3 97 0 6 93 1 Finland 8thgrade 15 82 3 3 95 2 9 88 3 Total 13 85 2 3 96 1 8 90 2 6th grade 9 90 1 6 92 2 8 91 1 Japan 8thgrade 12 87 1 5 94 1 9 90 1 Total 11 88 1 6 93 1 8 92 0 93 94 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. Table 13. The results of the estimations of state of mind, by country, grade Table 13. The results of the estimations of state of mind, by country, grade and gender and gender State of mind Girls Boys Total M Sd M Sd M Sd 6th grade 81.9 16.8 84.4 17.4 83.2 17.1 Finland 8thgrade 72.4 20.5 79.8 19.8 76.1 20.5 Total 76.7 19.5 82.0 18.8 79.3 19.3 6th grade 75.1 22.2 80.6 22.6 78.0 22.5 Japan 8thgrade 68.8 23.3 73.5 22.4 71.0 23.0 Total 71.5 23.0 76.9 22.8 74.2 23.0 Depressing incidents Girls M Sd Boys M Sd Total M Sd 6th grade 71.1 19.2 77.1 20.4 73.3 19.7 Finland 8thgrade 63.3 22.0 70.8 25.3 66.2 23.5 Total 66.2 21.3 73.1 23.8 68.8 22.4 6th grade 61.6 25.5 69.6 27.9 65.4 26.8 Japan 8thgrade 62.0 23.9 64.4 23.0 62.8 23.5 Total 61.9 24.4 67.0 25.5 63.8 24.9 No Depressing incidents Girls M Sd Boys M Sd Total M Sd 6th grade 87.9 11.5 86.2 16.1 87.0 14.3 Finland 8thgrade 81.4 14.1 84.0 15.1 82.9 14.7 Total 84.8 13.2 85.1 15.6 85.0 14.6 6th grade 83.7 14.3 85.1 18.3 84.5 16.6 Japan 8thgrade 76.3 20.2 77.5 21.1 77.0 20.7 Total 80.0 17.9 81.2 20.2 80.6 19.2 According to their answers, the adolescents had discussed their problems related to their education and family most often with their friends or family members. They had also discussed with class teachers or subject teachers, especially when they had problems in education. However, the answers showed that some of the adolescents did not discuss their problems with anyone, and did not want to do so either. Other persons that the adolescents discussed their problems with were most often grandparents or girl/boyfriends. The frequencies showed that adolescents discuss and want to discuss their problems with friends and family members in both countries. In Finland 39% of the adolescents discussed problems related to their studying with their family members but only 18% of the Japanese adolescents did that. They discussed these problems more often than the Finnish adolescents with class teachers and subject teachers (put together 19%). Furthermore, it seems that the Japanese adolescents also discuss problems other than school related ones more often with their teachers than Finnish adolescents. There are no significant differences in the boys’ and the girls’ responses. The sixth graders seem to discuss all kinds of problems with their teachers more often than the eighth graders do. Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi 95 Discussion On average the adolescents surveyed revealed few symptoms of mental ill health. They reported most often symptoms of depression and problems related to state of mind and controlling emotions. The schools have several occasions, especially in art classes, to discuss emotions with adolescents. However, to be able to do this the teachers should understand their role as extensive supporters of their students. The girls had almost all symptoms more often than the boys and the eighth graders more often than the sixth graders. No single symptom proved to occur significantly more often than the other symptoms. The Japanese adolescents had more often psychosomatic symptoms, symptoms of impulsiveness, social anxiety, and problems of controlling emotions than the Finnish adolescents. The Finnish adolescents had problems in their social relationships more often than Japanese adolescents. The group with the least wellbeing was that of the Japanese girls in eighth grade. They most often had problems in controlling emotions, symptoms of depression, and eating and overweight problems. The adolescents in both countries felt that their state of mind was considerably good, but the Finnish adolescents evaluated their state of mind to be better than the Japanese adolescents. One-third of the adolescents had experienced some depressing incident during the last month. Almost half of these adolescents had discussed it with some other person. Naturally those who had experienced that kind of an incident more often than the others felt that they needed to consult a psychologist. However, this was an opinion of only one-fifth of them. The Finnish adolescents discussed their problems with their family members more often than the Japanese adolescents, and the Japanese adolescents turned to their teachers with their problems more often than the Finnish adolescents. Therefore it is important to consider if Japanese teachers have opportunities to support their students individually because the study groups in Japan are so large. The results support the findings of the previous international studies (Landsford et al., 2005; Tanaka et al., 2005), which showed that Japanese adolescents do not feel as well as adolescents in Western countries. In addition, the result that the eighth graders more often had symptoms than the sixth graders is consistent with several previous studies indicating that psychosomatic symptoms, symptoms of impulsiveness, social anxiety, and problems of controlling emotions increase during adolescence (Costello et al., 2003; Measelle et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 1998.) The girls more often than the boys had depression, impulsiveness, social anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, and problems related to controlling emotions and in how they picture themselves. Nevertheless, both genders equally often had problems in social relationships. Also these results are congruent with the results of several previous studies (Angold et al., 1998; Birmaher & Axelson, 2001; Landsford et al., 2005; Presnell et al., 2004). In the present study, most of the students’ symptoms were related to depression and controlling of emotions. For instance, Angold et al. (1998) argue that the difference in girls’ and boys’ symptoms of depression increase significantly during adolescence. 96 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. However, the results of the present study show that in sixth grade the girls already had more symptoms of depression than the boys. Moreover, the symptoms of depression were often related to other symptoms. Also Birmaher and Axelson (2001) as well as Stice et al. (2001) point out that depression is frequently connected to several psychological problems and it often makes diagnosing difficult. The Japanese students felt more often than the Finnish students that they had difficulties in controlling their emotions. This may be due to cultural differences. In Japanese culture specific norms control people’s behaviour. Marshall (1994) summarises the impact of Confucian tradition on modern education, one of them being the pressure to keep social harmony. This reduces students’ possibilities to show their emotions. Moreover, Japanese collective culture makes showing individual emotions difficult (Shimahara, 1995). The Japanese educational goal is not for an independent individual as understood in Western thinking but for an interdependent personhood (Markus & Kitayama, 1998). Although Finland is considered as an individualist Western country, the results of this study show that family is important for young Finnish people. Almost half of Finnish adolescents discussed their problems with their family members. Although family is also important for Japanese people, the results showed that Japanese adolescents often turn to their teachers when they have problems. However, the results also showed that, although Finnish adolescents discuss their problems more often with their family members, they have more problems in their social relationships than Japanese adolescents. According to their answers, adolescents talked about their problems most often with their friends or family members. Previous studies have also shown that parents have the most important influence on their children’s emotional lives throughout adolescence (Greene & Way, 2005). Wentzel & McNamara (1999) argue that parents have an important role in their children’s social competence at school. Close parental relationships can help them in developing intimate relationships with peers and provide a safeguard against depression and feelings of low self-worth. Research has also suggested that those adolescents who have established good peer relationships display higher levels of emotional wellbeing and lower levels of emotional distress than those who have no friends (Wenzel et al., 2004). The students also discussed with class teachers or subject teachers, especially when they had problems in studying. This was the case especially in Japan. As Brewster and Bowen (2004) state, teacher support has a great influence especially during the middle-school years. It decreases students’ problem behaviours and improves their academic outcomes. Social support from adults and peers promotes the psychological wellbeing of students. In the study conducted by Buchanan and Bowen (2008) the students with a strong combination of adult and peer support gained the highest psychological wellbeing scores. Therefore it is essential to enhance students’ relationships with teachers and other adults within and outside the school setting. In addition, Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi 97 increasing positive relationships among students is important. School and home are the most central environments in a child’s life. Creating strong connections between these two would significantly promote students’ wellbeing (Ben-Arieh et al., 2009.) Children born in Finland have since the 1980s been among the healthiest in the world. However, there are several factors that challenge school children’s health today: the growth of students’ mental problems, overweight problems, and risk of social exclusion. In the twenty-first century the number of children who have been transferred to special education has significantly increased. One pupil in 10 has some medically diagnosed disease or disability that needs nursing or support. If social problems are included, one-third of all students need special support or nursing. In Finland more and more of the responsibility for school health care has been transferred to municipalities and to each of its schools. The annually revised curriculum that every school makes also includes plans for school children’s health care. In addition, the curriculum includes plans for how school children’s wellbeing is taken care of (Stakes, 2002). The Japanese educational system’s success in developing and deploying human capital has also been recognised abroad and Japan’s education has been considered to be one of the main reasons for the nation’s economic achievements (Pokarier, 2002). However, Japanese education is criticised, for instance, for being too strict, and for stealing students’ youth, creativity and spontaneity (Roesgaard, 1998). Several means are used simultaneously to enhance Finnish school children’s wellbeing and health. It is necessary to bring the factors that endanger students’ wellbeing and how they can be prevented to the attention of all school personnel. A secure and pleasant school environment has an important role as a promoter of wellbeing. Health education is a new school subject that includes theoretical and practical knowledge for students about how they can take care of their own health. Student welfare services have to be available for students weekly during the lessons. Student welfare groups are multi-professional expert groups that use school nurses’, school doctors’, school welfare officers’, school psychologists’, and teachers’ professional expertise to promote students’ wellbeing. Assessing, observing, and promoting school children’s wellbeing is included in each school’s curriculum. The goal is that the school nurse meets all students and does a personal physical examination at least once a year. In Finland the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health recommends that there should be one full-time school nurse per 600–700 students. School welfare personnel and parents together make a personal welfare and health plan for each student. In Japan the Ministry of Education has made efforts to improve education by new curricular emphases, new teaching material and additional in-service training possibilities for teachers. Poukka (2011) has analysed the Japanese curriculum, especially from the view of moral education. She found that important aspects are, for instance, continuous self-development and caring for others, which are crucial for students’ wellbeing. 98 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. In special situations a Finnish student and his or her parents have an opportunity to discuss matters related to the student’s health, wellbeing, and learning skills with a school welfare officer or a school psychologist. This kind of cooperation is always required when a student is transferred to special education. According to law every child has a right to get the support and assistance that he or she needs in order to be able to attend school. A school psychologist supports a student together with his or her teacher and parents, and a school welfare officer uses means that social work provides to help him or her when he or she has special difficulties (Stakes, 2002). In Finland the law guarantees good opportunities to maintain health and wellbeing for a student. Organisationally the possibilities are favourable for maintenance of school health care, but in practice the fact that the number of school welfare officers and school psychologists in municipalities is insufficient causes problems. The plans that the schools have made in order to support students’ wellbeing in practice are still inadequate. Furthermore, it is difficult for the whole school personnel to commit themselves to observing and promoting students’ wellbeing. Özet Giriş Gençlik, yetişkinliğe giden geçici bir evredir. Buluğ çağında fiziksel, duygusal ve bilişsel gelişim ile ilgili zorluklar gençlerin zihinsel iyi oluşunu tehlikeye atabilir. Ayıca ebeveynlerle, arkadaşlarla ve öğretmelerle ilişkiler onların sağlığı için bir tehlike olabilir (Mash & Wolfe, 2005). Depresyon kız ergenler için en yaygın zihinsel bozukluktur ve kızların yaklaşık %20’sinin gençlik yıllarında depresyon belirtileri vardır. Aynı zamanda kızlarda sıklıkla yeme problemleri görülür veya yemek yeme konusu sıkıntılıdır (Birmaher & Axelson, 2001; Stice ve diğerleri, 2001). Bir kimsenin kendi bedenini algılama biçiminin yeme problemlerinin gelişiminde önemli rolü vardır (Cafri & Thompson, 2004). Düşük özsaygı ve depresyon, beden ölçüsü, etnik grup, sosyokültürel baskı ve arkadaşlarla ve ebeveynlerle ilişkiler bir ergenin bedensel tatminsizliğini arttırabilir (Cash, 2002; Paxton ve diğerleri., 2005; Paxton ve diğerleri, 2006). Tatminsizliği arttırabilen diğer etkenler beden ölçüsü, etnik grup, arkadaşlar ve ebeveynlerle ilişkilerdir (Paxton ve diğerleri, 2006). Birkaç araştırma kızların bedenlerinden memnun olma derecesinin erkeklere göre daha az olduğunu ortaya koymuştur (örneğin, Presnell ve diğerleri, 2004; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001). Cinsiyetler arasındaki farklılıkların belirli sebepleri bulunmamıştır. Fakat kızların ve erkeklerin bedenleri ile ilgili farklı sosyal baskılar vardır (Cafri ve dierleri, 2005; Ohring ve diğerleri, 2002). Kızlar zayıf olduklarında kendilerinden daha memnun olurlarken erkekler kaslı olmak isterler (Saarilehto ve diğerleri, 2003). Finlandiya’da Luopa ve diğerleri (2005) tarafından yürütülen boylamsal bir çalış- Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi 99 ma ortaokul ilk sınıf öğrencilerinin baş ağrılarının, depresyonlarının ve yorgunluklarının 2001 yılına kadar arttığını, sonra birkaç yıllığına düştüğünü ve yakın zamanlarda yine yaygın hale geldiğini göstermiştir. Bunun temel sebeplerinden biri okul işini çok stresli bulan öğrencilerin sayısının son yıllarda artmış olabileceğidir (Kämppi ve diğerleri, 2012). Luopa ve diğerleri (2006) kızların erkeklerden daha sık hafif veya erkeklerin yarı şiddetinde depresyon, yorgunluk ve uyku problemleri çektiklerini bulmuşlardır. Bu öğrenciler zihin durumlarını iyileştirmek için genellikle arkadaşlarından, ebeveynlerinden ve akrabalarından destek aramışlardır. Japonya’da ergenlerin baş ağrısı, mide krampları ve iştahsızlık gibi psikosomatik belirtilerinin sayısı da son on yılda artmıştır (Takahashi ve diğerleri, 2002). Japonya’da ve İsveç’te yürütülen karşılaştırmalı bir araştırma Japonya’da yedinci ile dokuzuncu sınıf arasındaki öğrencilerin yukarıda belirtilen sıkıntıları İsveç’teki arkadaşlarından daha sık yaşadıklarını göstermiştir. Ayrıca onların rahatsızlıklarında sıklıkla zihinsel belirtilere rastlanmış ve bu öğrencilerin hayatlarından İsveç’teki ergenlere göre daha az memnun oldukları belirlenmiştir. Bu durum kültürel farklılıkların rahatsızlıkların belirtilerinin doğası ve niteliği üzerinde etkileri olabildiğini gösterir (Landsford ve diğerleri, 2005.) Bir kişinin zihinsel sağlığının günlük yaşamında her şeyi normal idare edebiliyorsa iyi olduğu ölçülür. İnsanların yaşam koşullarına uyum sağlama ve iyi dengelenmiş bir yaşam sürme yeteneği iyi oluş hisleri ile yakından ilişkilidir (Vaillant, 2003). Zihinsel iyi oluş, öznel olarak hissedilen kapsamlı bir memnuniyet durumu ve olumlu duygu olarak tanımlanabilir (Ben-Zur, 2003). Öznel iyi oluş bir kimsenin yaşamının herhangi bir zamanda ve uzun zaman boyunca değerlendirmesini kapsar (Diener ve diğerleri, 2003). Kişilikteki ve öznel iyi oluş duygularındaki farklılıklar erken yaşlarda görülebilir (Diener & Lucas, 1999) ve bunun kalıtsal olduğu kanıtlanmıştır (Vaillant, 2003). Bununla birlikte bir kişinin mizacının, farklı ortamlara uyum sağlama yeteneğinin (Sohlberg ve diğerleri, 2002), amaçlara ulaşmak için sarf ettikleri çabanın ve insan ilişkilerinin (Luopa ve diğerleri, 2006), kişinin iyi oluş düzeyi üzerinde bir etkisi vardır. Öznel iyi oluş ve mutluluk da bir kimsenin yaşam kalitesine bağlıdır. Vatandaşların birçok hakka, eğitim fırsatına ve genellikle iyi sosyoekonomik statüye sahip olduğu ülkelerde iyi oluş standardının yüksek olduğu kanıtlanmıştır (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1991). Aile özellikleri ergenlerin iyi oluşları ile ilişkili olabilir. Örneğin ergenlerin öznel iyi oluşları ile ebeveynlerinin öznel iyi oluşları arasında olumlu korelasyonlar bulunmuştur (Ben-Zur, 2003; Larson & Richards, 1994). Vuille ve Schenkel (2001) okulun bir ergenin iyi oluşu ile bununla ilişkili birkaç durum üzerinde etkisi olduğunu bulmuşlardır. Özellikle Japonya’da, okulların bilişsel, ahlaki/dini, kentsel/ulusal, fiziksel, estetik ve müziksel alanları anlamlı şekilde vurguladığı bulunmuştur. Burada amaç bütünsel kişi eğitimidir (Cummings, 2003). Bu çalışmanın amacı çok farklı ortamlarda altıncı ve sekizinci sınıfa giden öğrencilerin kendi psikolojik iyi oluşunu nasıl değer- 100 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. lendirdiğini araştırmaktır. Yöntem Araştırma 697 Finli ve 721 Japon öğrenciyle yürütülmüştür. Araştırmayla Finli ve Japon altıncı ve sekizinci sınıf erkek ve kız öğrencilerin iyi oluşları arasında farklar bulunup bulunmadığı ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. Araştırmada Japonya’da Nagai ve diğerleri tarafından geliştirilmiş olan anket Fince’ye çevrilerek kullanılmıştır. Anket ergenlerin iyi oluşunun birkaç farklı yönü ile ilişkili maddeleri içermektedir (Nagai ve diğerleri, 2007). Bulgular Araştırmanın sonuçlarına bakıldığında “ortalamaya” göre az sayıda fiziksel belirti belirlenmiştir. Japon öğrencilerin Finli öğrencilere göre psikosomatik belirtilerinin çok az farkla fazla olduğu; bununla birlikte, iki ülke arasındaki farkın az olduğu görülmüştür. Kızlar psikosomatik belirtileri erkeklere göre ve sekizinci sınıflar altıncı sınıflara göre daha sık bildirmişlerdir. Japon ergenlerin Finli ergenlere göre psikosomatik belirtileri, düşünmeden hareket etme belirtilerini, sosyal kaygı ve duyguları kontrol etme problemlerini daha sık yaşadığı tespit edilmiştir. Finli ergenlerin Japon ergenlere göre sosyal ilişkilerinde problemlerinin daha sık olduğu; buna karşılık sekizinci sınıftaki Japon kızların diğer öğrencilere göre duyguları kontrol etme problemlerinin, depresyon belirtilerinin, yeme ve aşırı kilo problemlerinin daha sık olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Her iki ülkedeki ergenler zihinsel durumlarının oldukça iyi olduğunu hissettiklerini belirtmişler fakat Finli ergenler zihinsel durumlarını Japon ergenlere göre daha iyi olarak değerlendirmişlerdir. Sonuçlar Japon öğrencilerin Batı ülkelerindeki ergenler kadar iyi hissetmediklerini gösteren daha önce yapılmış uluslararası araştırmaların bulgularını desteklemektedir (Landsford ve diğerleri, 2005; Tanaka ve diğerleri, 2005). Ayrıca sekizinci sınıfların altıncı sınıflara göre “daha sık” belirtileri sonucu; psikosomatik belirtilerin, düşünmeden hareket etme belirtilerinin, sosyal kaygının ve duyguları kontrol etme problemlerinin ergenlikte arttığını gösteren daha önce yapılmış birkaç araştırma ile tutarlıdır (Costello ve diğerleri, 2003; Measelle ve diğerleri, 2006; Roberts ve diğerleri, 1998). Kızların depresyon belirtileri, düşünmeden hareket etme davranışları, sosyal kaygıları, psikosomatik belirtileri, duyguları kontrol etme ve kendilerini tanımlamaları ile ilgili problemleri erkeklere göre daha sıktı. Hâlbuki her iki cinsin de sosyal ilişkilerde eşit sıklıkta problemleri vardı. Bu sonuçlar da önceden yapılmış birkaç araştırmanın sonuçları ile uyumludur (Angold ve diğerleri, 1998; Birmaher & Axelson, 2001; Landsford ve diğerleri, 2005; Presnell ve diğerleri, 2004). Bu çalışmada öğrencilerin psikosomatik belirtilerinin çoğu depresyonla ve duyguları kontrol etmekle ilişkilidir. Örneğin Angold ve diğerleri (1998) kızların ve erkeklerin depresyon belirtilerindeki farkın ergenlikte anlamlı şekilde arttığını iddia ederler. Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi 101 Bununla birlikte bu araştırmanın sonuçları altıncı sınıfta bile kızlarda erkeklere göre daha fazla depresyon belirtileri bulunduğunu göstermektedir. Ayrıca depresyon belirtileri sıklıkla diğer belirtilerle ilişkili idi. Bundan başka Birmaher ve Axelson (2001) ayrıca Stice ve diğerleri (2001) depresyonun sıklıkla birkaç psikolojik problemle bağlantılı olduğuna ve bu durumun, çoğunlukla teşhisi zorlaştırdığına dikkat çekerler. Japon öğrenciler Finli öğrencilerden daha sık olarak duygularını kontrol etmede zorluklar çektiklerini hissetmişlerdir. Bu kültürel farklılıklardan kaynaklanabilir. Japon kültüründe belirli normlar insanların davranışlarını kontrol eder, bunlardan bir tanesi sosyal uyumu muhafaza etmekteki baskıdır (Marshall, 1994). Bu, öğrencilerin duygularını gösterme olanaklarını azaltır. Ayrıca Japon kolektif kültürü bireysel duyguları göstermeyi zorlaştırır (Shimahara, 1995). Japon eğitiminin amacı Batılı anlayıştaki gibi bağımsız bir birey olmak değil, birbirine bağlı kişi olmaktır (Markus & Kitayama, 1998). Sonuç/Tartışma Ebeveynlerin ergenlik boyunca çocuklarının duygusal yaşamları üzerinde önemli bir etkisi vardır (Greene & Way, 2005). Ayrıca ebeveynlerin çocuklarının okuldaki sosyal yeterliğinde de önemli bir rolü vardır. Yakın ebeveyn ilişkileri çocuklara arkadaşları ile yakın ilişkiler geliştirmelerinde yardımcı olabilir ve onları depresyona ve düşük özdeğer duygularına karşı koruyabilir (Wentzel ve diğerleri, 2004; Wentzel ve McNamara, 1999). Öğrenciler özellikle ders çalışma ile ilgili problemleri olduğunda öğretmenleriyle tartışmışlardır. Bu özellikle Japonya’da görülen bir durumdur. Brewster ve Bowen’ın (2004) ifade ettiği gibi öğretmen desteği öğrencilerin problem davranışlarını azaltır ve onların akademik başarılarını yükseltir. Yetişkinlerden ve akranlardan gelen sosyal destek öğrencilerin psikolojik iyi oluşlarını arttırır. Buchanan ve Bowen (2008) tarafından yürütülen çalışmada güçlü bir yetişkin ve akran desteği kombinasyonuna sahip öğrencilerin en yüksek psikolojik iyi oluş puanı kazandıkları bulunmuştur. Bu yüzden öğrencilerin öğretmenlerle ve diğer yetişkinlerle olan ilişkilerini sağlamak ve bu ilişkileri derinleştirmek önemlidir. Ayrıca öğrenciler arasında da olumlu ilişkileri sağlamak önemlidir. Okul ve ev, bir çocuğun yaşamındaki en merkezi çevredir. Bu ikisi arasında güçlü bağlantılar oluşturmak öğrencilerin iyi oluşlarını anlamlı şekilde arttırabilir (Ben-Arieh ve diğerleri, 2009). Japon eğitimi ve öğrenci yetiştirme anlayışı ulusun ekonomik başarılarının başlıca sebebi olarak tanımlanır (Pokarier, 2002). Bununla birlikte Japon eğitimi çok katı olmakla ve öğrencilerin gençliğini, yaratıcılığını ve doğaçlamalarını çalmakla eleştirilir (Roesgaard, 1998). Japonya’da Eğitim Bakanlığı yeni müfredat vurguları, yeni öğretim malzemeleri ve öğretmenler için ilave hizmet içi eğitim olanakları vasıtasıyla eğitimi iyileştirmek için çaba sarf etmiştir. Poukka (2011) Japon bakanlık müfredatını özellikle ahlaki eğitim açısından analiz etmiştir. Öğrencilerin iyi oluşları için üzerinde durulan noktaların sürekli özgelişim ve diğerlerini dikkate alma olduğunu bulmuştur. 102 T. Merisuo-Storm et al. Finlandiya’da okul çocuklarının iyi oluşlarını ölçme, gözlemleme ve arttırma her bir okulun müfredatına dâhil edilmiştir. Kanuna göre her çocuğun okula gidebilmek için ihtiyaç duyduğu destek ve yardımı alma hakkı vardır. 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