azu_etd_10327_sip1_m... - The University of Arizona Campus
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azu_etd_10327_sip1_m... - The University of Arizona Campus
LATE QUATERNARY GLACIATION AND PALEOCLIMATE OF TURKEY INFERRED FROM COSMOGENIC 36Cl DATING OF MORAINES AND GLACIER MODELING by Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya __________________________ A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WITH A MAJOR HYDROLOGY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2009 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of the Dissertation Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya entitled Late Quaternary Glaciation and Paleoclimate of Turkey Inferred From Cosmogenic 36Cl Dating of Moraines and Glacier Modeling and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Date: April 15, 2009 Marek G. Zreda Date: April 15, 2009 Victor R. Baker Date: April 15, 2009 Anthony John T. Jull Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement. Date: April 15, 2009 Dissertation director: Marek G. Zreda 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author. SIGNED: Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my advisor, Marek Zreda, for his countless assistance and guidance during my graduate studies at the University of Arizona. I gained great benefits from his enthusiasm and intelligent curiosity. I also would like to thank my former Ph.D. advisor, Attila Çiner, from Hacettepe University, Ankara Turkey, who encouraged me to pursue research on cosmogenic dating of Turkish paleoglaciers. This work would not be completed without his continuous and unconditional help. Many people have also provided valuable assistance and advice in completing this work. Thanks to Chris Zweck, who have provided the glacier model, and patiently taught me all about it. I owe great appreciation to Serdar Bayarı, Bülent Akıl, Kemal Akpınar, Erdal Şen, Şükran Şahbudak, and Tuna Özverim for their help and logistic support in the field. My recognitions are also due to Darin Desilets and Tim Corley who provided invaluable assistance and expertise in our cosmogenic lab. Special thanks to Kayadam Hotel and its personnel who greatly host us during our visits to Turkey. In particular, Kısmet Çiner, a graceful İstanbul lady, made our experience in Cappadocia unforgettable. I thank my dissertation committee members, Vic Baker and Tim Jull for sharing with me their comments and advice. The research in this dissertation was supported by a grant from the US National Science Foundation (grant 0115298) and grants from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) (Grant 101Y002 and 107Y069). Finally, I am deeply grateful to my wife and my parents for their encouragement, endless support and patience during my years in graduate school. Their love and care is always precious for me. 5 “… to my lovely wife Perihan and beloved son Enes Ömer” 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT …………………………………...………………………………...………. 10 1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………...……………………………….….. 12 2. PRESENT STUDY …...………………………………………..…………………….... 2.1 Statement of candidate’s contribution of papers ……...……………………... 14 18 REFERENCES ………………….…………...…………………………………….…….. 19 APPENDIX A: ERCİYES VOLKANI GEÇ KUVATERNER BUZUL ÇÖKELLERİ..... Statement of Copyright Permission …………………………….……………….. Öz ………………………………………………………………………………... Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….. Giriş ………...…………………………………………………………………… Amaç ve Yöntem ………………………………...……………………………… Buzul Çökelleri ………………………………...……………………………...… Aksu Vadisi ……...……………………...……………………………… Öksüzdere Vadisi ……...………………...……………………………… Üçker Vadisi …..………………………...……………………………… Topaktaş Sırtı ……….…………………...……………………………… Kırkpınar Vadisi ………………………...……………………………… Güncel Buzul ……...…………………………...……………………………...… Tartışma ve Sonuçlar ...………………………...……………………………...… Katkı Belirtme ...………..……………………...……………………………...… Kaynaklar ……...………..……………………...……………………………...… 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 29 32 34 36 37 38 38 40 40 APPENDIX B: COLD AND WET LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM ON MOUNT SANDIRAS, SW TURKEY, INFERRED FROM COSMOGENIC DATING AND GLACIER MODELING ……………………………………….…………. Statement of Copyright Permission …………………………….……………….. Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….. 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………… 2. Physical setting and climate …………………...……………………………… 3. Evidence of glacial action on Mount Sandıras ……………………………….. 4. Methods ……………………………………………………………………..... 4.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl dating of moraines ……..…………………..…..... 4.1.1. Determination of 36Cl ages …….…………………..…..... 4.1.2 Collection, preparation and analysis of samples ………..... 4.2. Glacier modeling ……………………..…..…………………..…..... 5. Results …...…………………………………………………………………..... 5.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl exposure ages ……..………...……………..…..... 5.2. Paleoclimatic interpretations …….…..………...……………..…..... 6. Conclusion …...………………………….…………………………………..... Acknowledgements ………………....………..……………….……………….... References ………….……………....………………………….……………….... 42 43 47 47 48 49 50 50 50 52 52 54 54 54 56 56 56 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued APPENDIX C: GLACIATIONS AND PALEOCLIMATE OF MOUNT ERCIYES, CENTRAL TURKEY, SINCE THE LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM, INFERRED FROM 36Cl COSMOGENIC DATING AND GLACIER MODELING …………………………………………………………………….. Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….. 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………… 2. Physical setting, geology and climate …………………...………….………… 3. Glacial activity on Mount Erciyes …………...……………………………….. 3.1. Aksu Valley ……..…………………………………..………..…..... 3.2. Üçker Valley ……..…………………………...……..………..…..... 4. Methods ……………………………………………………………………..... 4.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl dating method ……….....…………………..…..... 4.2. Glacier modeling ……………………..…..…………………..…..... 5. Results …...…………………………………………………………………..... 5.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl exposure ages ……..………...……………..…..... 5.1.1. Aksu Valley ………..….…..………...……………..…..... 5.1.2. Üçker Valley ………..….…..………...………...…..…..... 5.2. Glacier modeling ……………………..…..…………………..…..... 6. Discussion of timing of glaciations ....…………………....……………..…..... 7. Paleoclimatic interpretations …….…..…………………....……………..…..... 7.1. Last Glacial Maximum …...…………..…..…………………..…..... 7.2. Late Glacial …………….....…………..…..…………………..…..... 7.3. Early Holocene ……….......…………..…..…………………..…..... 7.4. Late Holocene ……….......…………..………………………..…..... 8. Validation of glacier model using the retreat of the present glacier during the past century …………………………………..……………………………….…. 9. Discussion and conclusion …………….…………………...………………..... Acknowledgements ………………....…………………...…….……………….... References ………….……………....………………………….……………….... Figures and tables ………………….....……………………….……………........ 92 95 98 99 124 APPENDIX D: REMARKABLY EXTENSIVE EARLY HOLOCENE GLACIATION IN TURKEY …………………………………………………..……………...…. Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….. 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………… 2. Geologic setting …………...…...……………...……………………………… 3. Methods …………...…...............……………...……………………………… 4. Results and Discussions ...............……………...…………...………………… Acknowledgements ………………...………………………….……………….... References sited …………………....………………………….……………….... Figures …………………....…………………..……………….……………….... Data repository items ……………....………………………….……………….... Methods ….……………...………….……………………………...….... Cosmogenic dating ….………………….……...……………..... Sample collection, preparations and analysis ………………….. 136 137 138 139 140 141 147 147 154 158 159 159 159 59 60 61 63 65 66 68 70 70 72 74 74 74 77 78 80 85 85 88 90 91 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Calculation of surface exposure ages ...…................................................ Calculation of ELA, temperature and precipitation …………………...... Ice flow line model …………...….…………...………...…….... Sensitivity of the Hacer glacier to temperature and precipitation...…….. Data repository references ……………………………...…………...….. Data repository figure and tables ……………………...…………...…… 160 162 163 164 164 169 APPENDIX E: CONTERMINOUS WET AND DRY LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM CLIMATES OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN ……..……………...…. Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….. Main Text …………………...…………………………………………………… References and Notes ……………....………………………….………………... Figures ………...………………………………………………………………… Supporting Online Material ………...…...……………...……………………….. Data supplement S1: Glacier model ………….....……………………… Calculation of Mass Balance …………………………………... Ice Flow ………………………………………………………... Local Climate Parameterizations ………………………………. Data supplement S2: Regional settings and site details ………………… Site Details ……………………………………………………... Mount Sandıras ………………………………………... Uludağ ………………………………………………… Mount Erciyes …………………………………………. Kaçkar Mountains ……………………………………... Mount Cilo …………………………………………….. References ………………………………………………………………. Supplementary Online Material Figures and Tables …………………… 175 176 176 184 187 190 191 191 192 194 195 196 196 197 198 199 200 201 205 APPENDIX F: SUMMARY OF THE LATE QUATERNARY GLACIAL CHRONOLOGY OF TURKEY ….…………………………………………..…. 210 APPENDIX G: BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TURKISH GLACIERS AND GLACIATED MOUNTAINS ………………………………………………………………..…. 216 APPENDIX H: SAMPLE PREPARATION PROCEDURES FOR MEASUREMENTS OF COSMOGENIC 36Cl IN ROCKS BY ACCELERATED MASS SPECTROMETRY …………………………………………...…………………. 1. General Cleaning Procedures …………………………………………...…….. 2. Pretreatment …………………………………………...……………………… 2.1. Crushing …………………………………………...……………….. 2.2. Grinding …………………………………………...……………….. 2.3. Sieving …………………………………………...………………… 3. Leaching …………………………………………...………………………….. 3.1. Leaching Silicates …………………………………………...……... 3.2. Leaching Carbonates …………………………………………...….. 240 242 244 244 245 245 246 246 247 9 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued 4. Powdering …………………………………………...………………………... 5. Total Chlorine Determination …………………………………………...……. 6. Spike Calculations ……………………………………………………………. 7. Dissolutions of Samples …………………………………………...………….. 7.1. Dissolution Procedures for Silicate Samples ………………………. 7.2. Dissolution Procedures for Carbonate Samples …………………… 8. Chlorine Extraction …………………………………………...………………. 8.1. Precipitation Method …………………………………………...….. 8.2. Ion Exchange Columns …………………………………………...... 248 251 258 263 264 266 269 269 272 APPENDIX I: FIELD DESCRIPTIONS, ATTRIBUTES, GEOCHEMICAL AND ISOTOPIC ANALYTICAL AND SPIKE DATA OF SAMPLES USED IN COSMOGENIC AGE CALCULATIONS AND CLIMATIC RECORDS ……... 277 APPENDIX J: TURKISH GEOGRAPHICAL NAME INDEX AND THEIR MEANINGS IN ENGLISH ……………………………………………………... 291 APPENDIX K: THE FORTRAN CODE FOR GLACIER MODEL ……………...…...... 296 APPENDIX L: SUPPLEMENTARY CD ……………………………………………….. Appendix H Files DiffCellsCalculator.xls AgeCalculator.xls SpikeCalculator.xls DespikeCalculator.xls Appendix I Files Pictures of Samples SampleData.xls MoraineAgeCalculator.xls ClimateData.xls 303 10 ABSTRACT The main objective of this dissertation is to improve the knowledge of glacial chronology and paleoclimate of Turkey during the Late Quaternary. The 36 Cl cosmogenic exposure ages of moraines show that Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) glaciers were the most extensive ones in Turkey in the last 22 ka (ka=thousands years), and they were closely correlated with the global LGM chron (between 19−23 ka). LGM glaciers started retreating 21.3±0.9 ka (1σ) ago on Mount Erciyes, central Turkey, and 20.4±1.3 ka ago on Mount Sandıras, southwest Turkey. Glaciers readvanced and retreated by 14.6±1.2 ka ago (Late Glacial) on Mount Erciyes and 16.2±0.5 ka ago on Mount Sandıras. Large Early Holocene glaciers were active in Aladağlar, south-central Turkey, where they culminated at 10.2±0.2 ka and retreated by 8.6±0.3 ka, and on Mount Erciyes, where they retreated by 9.3±0.5 ka. The latest glacial advance took place 3.8±0.4 ka ago on Mount Erciyes. Using glacier modeling together with paleoclimate proxy data from the region, I reconstructed the paleoclimate at these four discrete times. The results show that LGM climate was 8-11oC colder than today (obtained from paleotemperature proxies) and wetter (up to 2 times) on the southwestern mountains, drier (by ~60%) on the northeastern ones and approximately the same as today in the interior regions. The intense LGM precipitation over the mountains along the northern Mediterranean coast was produced by unstable atmospheric conditions due to the anomalously steep vertical temperature gradients on the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. In contrast, drier conditions along the southern Black Sea coast were produced by the partially ceased moisture take- 11 up from the cold or frozen Black Sea and prevailing periglacial conditions due to the cold air carried from northern hemisphere’s ice sheets. Relatively warmer and moister air from the south and overlying cold and dry air pooled over the northern and interior uplands created a boundary between the wet and dry LGM climates somewhere on the Anatolian Plateau. The analysis of Late Glacial advances suggests that the climate was colder by 4.5-6.4oC based on up to 1.5 times wetter conditions. The Early Holocene was 2.1oC to 4.9oC colder on Mount Erciyes and up to 9oC colder on Aladağlar, based on twice as wet as today’s conditions. The Late Holocene was 2.4-3oC colder than today and the precipitation amounts approached the modern levels. Glaciers present on Turkish mountains today are retreating at accelerating rates and historical observations of the retreat are consistent with the behavior of other glaciers around the world. 12 1. INTRODUCTION Turkey (36-42 oN, 26-45 oE) is situated in the transition zone between the temperate Mediterranean climates influenced by North Atlantic cyclones (Macklin et al., 2002), mid-latitude subtropical high pressure climatic zone (la Fontaine et al., 1990), and possibly Indian Monsoon climates (Jones et al., 2006). Paleoclimate of Turkey is highly sensitive to climatic perturbations that affected the positions and intensities of the past atmospheric circulations. The knowledge of paleoclimate of Turkey and the wider Middle East is critically important not only to link mid-latitude paleoclimate to Northern Hemisphere climatic shifts (Kwiecien et al., 2009), but also to understand the evolution of civilizations which played an important role in the human history throughout the region (Issar and Zohar, 2004). Large scale features of today’s atmospheric circulation patterns might have been present in the past, although they may have been geographically displaced, or subjected to different seasonal or inter-annual variations with different intensities. Such geographic shifts affected the dynamic structure of the atmosphere in the circum-Mediterranean (Jost et al., 2005; Kuhlemann et al., 2008), and these changes were recorded in a variety of environmental archives (Hayes et al., 2005; Robinson et al., 2006; Kuhlemann et al., 2008; Kwiecien et al., 2009). A wealth of such paleoclimatic proxies in the Eastern Mediterranean makes this region valuable to make inferences about both environmental and anthropogenic changes. Nevertheless, the complexity of the nature of these proxies 13 and dynamics of the atmosphere in the Eastern Mediterranean create incongruity among published paleoclimate data (Jost et al., 2005; Tzedakis, 2007), emphasizing the need for more direct constrains on the past regional climate patterns. Mountain glaciers are sensitive indicators of climate change (Steiner et al., 2008), and they react in a relatively simple way to it (Oerlemans, 2005). They respond to minute changes of climate, mainly of precipitation and temperature, via changing their mass balances, and therefore sizes, which can be used as a climate proxy. By analogy, reconstruction of timing and magnitude of paleoglaciers in mountain settings provides valuable and direct information on paleoclimate, and particularly on local temperature and precipitation (Ohmura et al, 1992; Plummer and Phillips, 2003). In this dissertation, I reconstructed glacial extents in several mountains of Turkey from detailed field studies. Then, I determined the timing of glaciations with the measurement of surface exposure ages of moraines and other glacier related landforms using in-situ produced cosmogenic 36 Cl (Gosse and Philips, 2001). Finally, to understand the past climates under which the glaciers existed, I modeled the glacier extents under prescribed climatic conditions by using a physically-based glacier model (Oerlemans et al., 1998). The combination of geological investigations, dating of glacial features and climate modeling efforts, as presented in this dissertation, revealed, for the first time, the regional Late Quaternary chronology and glacier-based paleoclimate conditions of Turkey and, by extension, also of the immediate surroundings. 14 2. PRESENT STUDY This dissertation consists of five original research papers that are published in peer reviewed journals (two), accepted for publication (one paper), currently in review (one paper), or will soon be submitted (one paper), and seven supplementary appendixes. The sequence of papers represents a chronological progression of understanding the Late Quaternary glaciation and paleoclimate of different mountains of Turkey. The seven appendixes contain data and complementary information to the presented study. The first paper (appendix A), Erciyes Volkanı Geç Kuvaterner buzul çökelleri (Late Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano) was published in Turkish as a research paper in the Yerbilimleri (Journal of the Earth Sciences Application and Research Center of Hacettepe University, Ankara Turkey) with an English abstract and figure captions. This paper discusses our initial field observations of the Late Quaternary glacial deposits of Mount Erciyes. The second paper (appendix B), titled Cold and wet Last Glacial Maximum on Mount Sandıras, SW Turkey, inferred from cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling, was published as a research paper in the Quaternary Science Reviews in April 2008. This paper describes the Last Glacial Maximum glaciation and its paleoclimatic inferences obtained from a glacier model on Mount Sandıras, located on the Mediterranean coast of southwestern Turkey. 15 The third paper (appendix C), Glaciations and paleoclimate of Mount Erciyes, central Turkey, since the Last Glacial Maximum, inferred from 36 Cl cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling, has been accepted for publication in the Quaternary Science Reviews as a research paper. This paper describes the Last Glacial Maximum, Late Glacial, Early Holocene and Late Holocene glacier advances, dated with in-situ cosmogenic 36Cl, in two main valleys of Mount Erciyes. It also discusses the paleoclimate implications of these advances. The fourth paper (appendix D), titled Remarkably extensive Early Holocene glaciation in Turkey, was submitted to Geology. It is in revision to be resubmitted shortly. It describes an extraordinarily large Early Holocene glaciation in Hacer Valley of Aladağlar, southcentral Turkey, and paleoclimatic implications of its fast deglaciation. The fifth paper (appendix E), titled Conterminous wet and dry Last Glacial Maximum climates of the Eastern Mediterranean, is in preparation for submission to Science. This paper presents the general pattern of the Last Glacial Maximum climate and atmospheric circulation over Turkey and Eastern Mediterranean region based on glacier model results applied to five different mountains of Turkey. Appendix F contains all 36Cl cosmogenic exposure ages presented in this dissertation and the summary of the Late Quaternary glacial chronology of Turkey. 16 Appendix G lists the geographic information of glaciers and glaciated mountains of Turkey, adopted in part from Çiner (2004) and Messerli (1967). A brief literature review of each location is also given this appendix. Appendix H describes the sample preparation procedures used in this dissertation. These procedures start after the collection of rocks in the field and end with sending the final target sample to the accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS) laboratory. Appendix H contains four electronic files given in the Supplementary CD in Appendix L: (1) DiffCellsCalculator.xls for calculating the total chlorine content of samples measured by diffusion cells, (2) AgeCalculator.xls to calculate 36 Cl/Cl ratio from estimated age of sample to use in spike calculations, (3) SpikeCalculator.xls to calculate amount of the carrier to add the samples, (4) DespikeCalculator.xls to recalculate the 36Cl/Cl ratio and chlorine content of the rocks. Appendix I contains field descriptions of samples, analytical data used in the age calculations and climatic data used in the glacier model. The pictures of samples and there supplementary electronic files given in the Supplementary CD in Appendix L. There electronic files are (1) SampleData.xls has attributes, geochemical and isotopic analytical, and spike data of samples, (2) MoraineAgeCalculator.xls is a workbook to calculate average moraine ages, and (3) ClimateData.xls contains long term precipitation and temperature data measured at 254 meteorological stations in Turkey (downloaded 17 from the Global Historical Climatology Network, version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ oa/climate/ghcn-monthly/index.php, accessed in January 2009). Appendix J is a glossary of Turkish geographic names that appeared in this work and their English meanings. Appendix K contains the FORTRAN code of the glacier model used in this study. Appendix L is a CD attached to this dissertation that contains supplementary electronic files mentioned in Appendices H and I. The full references of the papers and their status at the time of completion of this dissertation are: Appendix A: Sarıkaya, M. A., Çiner, A., Zreda, M., 2003. Erciyes Volkanı Geç Kuvaterner buzul çökelleri [in Turkish, with English abstract and figure captions. Late Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano]. Yerbilimleri (Bulletin of Earth Sciences Application and Research Centre of Hacettepe University) 27, 59-74. Appendix B: Sarıkaya, M. A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Zweck, C., 2008. Cold and wet Last Glacial Maximum on Mount Sandıras, SW Turkey, inferred from cosmogenic dating and 18 glacier modeling. Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (7-8), 769-780. DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.01.002 Appendix C: Sarıkaya, M.A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., 2009. Glaciations and paleoclimate of Mount Erciyes, central Turkey, since the Last Glacial Maximum, inferred from 36 Cl cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling (accepted for publication in the Quaternary Science Reviews). DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.04.015 Appendix D: Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Sarıkaya, M.A., Zweck, C., Bayarı, S., 2009. Remarkably extensive early Holocene glaciation in Turkey (in revision to be resubmitted to Geology). Appendix E: Sarıkaya, M.A., Zreda M., Zweck, C., Çiner, A., 2009. Conterminous wet and dry Last Glacial Maximum climates of Turkey (in preparation for submission to Science). 2.1. Statement of candidate’s contribution of papers The candidate was the major contributor to the research reported in all papers. He wrote the papers given in appendixes A, B, C, and E, and extensively contributed to the writing of the paper given in appendix D. 19 REFERENCES Çiner, A., 2004. Turkish glaciers and glacial deposits. In: J. Ehlers and P. L. Gibbard (Eds.), Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology, Part I: Europe, pp. 419429. Elsevier Publishers, Amsterdam. Gosse, J.C., Phillips, F.M., 2001. Terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides: theory and application. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1475-1560. Hayes, A., Kucera, M., Kallel, N., Sbaffi, L., Rohling, E.J., 2005. Glacial Mediterranean sea surface temperatures based on planktonic foraminiferal assemblages. Quaternary Science Reviews 24 (7-9), 999-1016. Issar, A. S., Zohar, M., 2004. Climate change, environment and civilization in the Middle East. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Jones, M.D., Roberts, C.N., Leng, M.J., Turkeş, M., 2006. A high-resolution late Holocene lake isotope record from Turkey and links to North Atlantic and monsoon climate. Geology 34 (5), 361-364. Jost, A., Lunt, D., Kageyama, M., Abe-Ouchi, A., Peyron, O., Valdes, P.J., Ramstein, G., 2005. High-resolution simulations of the last glacial maximum climate over 20 Europe: a solution to discrepancies with continental palaeoclimatic reconstructions? Climate Dynamics 24 (6), 577-590. Kuhlemann, J., Rohling, E.J., Krumrei, I., Kubik, P., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kucera, M., 2008. Regional synthesis of Mediterranean atmospheric circulation during the last glacial maximum. Science 321 (5894), 1338-1340. Kwiecien, O., Arz, H.W., Lamy, F., Plessen, B., Bahr, A., Haug, G.H., 2009. North Atlantic control on precipitation pattern in the eastern Mediterranean/Black Sea region during the last glacial. Quaternary Research 71 (3), 375-384. la Fontaine, C. V., Bryson, R. A., Wendland, W. M., 1990. Airstream regions of North Africa and the Mediterranean. Journal of Climate, 3, 366-372. Macklin, M. G., Fuller, I. C., Lewin, J., Maas, G. S., Passmore, D. G., Rose, J., Woodward, J. C., Black, S., Hamlin, R. H. B., Rrowan, J. S., 2002. Correlation of fluvial sequences in the Mediterranean basin over the last 200 ka and their relationship to climate change. Quaternary Science Reviews, 21 (14-15), 16331641. Messerli, B., 1967. Die eiszeitliche und die gegenwartige Vergletscherung in Mittelmeerraum. Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228. 21 Oerlemans, J., Anderson, B., Hubbard, A., Huybrechts, P., Johannesson, T., Knap, W.H., Schmeits, M., Stroeven, A.P., Van de Wal, R.S.W., Wallinga, J. and Zuo, Z., 1998. Modelling the response of glaciers to climate warming. Climate Dynamics 14 (4), 267-274. Oerlemans, J., 2005. Extracting a Climate Signal from 169 Glacier Records. Science, 308 (5722), 675-677. Ohmura, A., Kasser, P., Funk, M., 1992. Climate at the equilibrium line of glaciers. Journal of Glaciology, 38, 397-411. Plummer M. A., Phillips F. M., 2003. A 2-D numerical model of snow/ice energy balance and ice flow for paleoclimatic interpretation of glacial geomorphic features. Quaternary Science Reviews, 22 (14), 1389-1406. Robinson, S.A., Black, S., Sellwood, B.W. and Valdes, P.J., 2006. A review of paleoclimates and paleoenvironments in the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean from 25,000 to 5000 years BP: setting the environmental background for the evolution of human civilizations. Quaternary Science Reviews 25 (13-14), 15171541. 22 Steiner, D., Pauling, A., Nussbaumer, S.U., Nesje, A., Luterbacher, J., Wanner, H., Zumbuhl, H.J., 2008. Sensitivity of European glaciers to precipitation and temperature - two case studies. Climatic Change 90 (4), 413-441. Tzedakis, P.C., 2007. Seven ambiguities in the Mediterranean palaeoenvironmental narrative. Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (17-18), 2042-2066. 23 APPENDICES 24 APPENDIX A ERCİYES VOLKANI GEÇ KUVATERNER BUZUL ÇÖKELLERİ LATE QUATERNARY GLACIAL DEPOSITS OF ERCIYES VOLCANO Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya1, Attila Çiner1, Marek Zreda2 1 2 Geological Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey Hydrology and Water Resources Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA [in Turkish, with English abstract and figure captions Yerbilimleri (Journal of the Earth Sciences Application and Research Center of Hacettepe University), 27 (2003), 59 – 74] 25 Editor-in-Chief: Prof. Dr. Reşat ULUSAY Hacettepe University, Faculty of Engineering, Geological Engineering Department 06800 Beytepe, ANKARA, TURKEY Tel: (+90) (312) 297 77 67; 297 77 00-05 Fax: (+90) (312) 299 20 75 E-mail: resat@hacettepe.edu.tr Internet://www.yerbilimleri.hacettepe.edu.tr April 22, 2009 Dear Mr. Akif Sarıkaya, This is to certify that HU-YUVAM the holder of the copyright of the paper “Late Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano” by M. Akif Sarıkaya, Attilla Çiner and Marek Zreda, published in the YERBILIMLERI journal in 27th issue (2003, pp. 59-74) grants you permission to reproduce the aforementioned material. The granted permission extends to microfilming and publication by the University Microfilms Incorporated (UMI) of your University, being aware that UMI may sell on demand, single copies of the dissertation, thesis or document, including the copyrighted materials, for scholarly purposes. Sincerely Prof. Dr. Reşat ULUSAY Editor-in-Chief YERBILIMLERI 26 Yerbilimleri, 27 (2003), 59-74 Hacettepe †niversitesi Yerbilimleri Uygulama ve AraßtÝrma Merkezi BŸlteni Bulletin of Earth Sciences Application and Research Centre of Hacettepe University Erciyes VolkanÝ Ge• Kuvaterner buzul •škelleri Late Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano M. Akif SARIKAYA, Attila ‚ÜNER Hacettepe †niversitesi, Jeoloji MŸhendisliÛi BšlŸmŸ, 06532 Beytepe, ANKARA Marek ZREDA University of Arizona, Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, AZ 85721 Tucson, USA …Z Kapadokya Volkanik BšlgesiÕnin en yŸksek volkanÝ olan Erciyes DaÛÝ, Ge• KuvaternerÕde Ÿ• evrede izlenebilen šnemli bir buzullaßma dšnemi ge•irmißtir. BuzullaßmanÝn izleri šzellikle dšrt ana vadi ile bir sÝrtta gšzlenir. KuzeybatÝya doÛru uzanan tekne ßekilli Aksu VadisiÕnde, dili 3400 m yŸksekliÛinde olan gŸncel bir buzul ile buzul dilinin šn kÝsÝmlarÝndan itibaren Ÿzerleri kaya bloklarÝyla kaplÝ šlŸ buzul par•alarÝ gšzlenir. Vadi boyunca Ÿ• buzul evresine ait erime, yan ve cephe morenleri ile sandur dŸzlŸkleri bulunmaktadÝr. Ülk evreye ait yan morenler 2900 m yŸkseklikten 2200 mÕye kadar inmekte ve bazÝ yerlerde gšreceli yŸkseklikleri 100 mÕyi ge•mektedir. Bu morenlerden tŸremiß 3-4 m •aplÝ bŸyŸk bloklar i•erebilen sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ ise geniß alanlar kaplar. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda diÛer šnemli bir buzul vadisi ise, daÛÝn doÛusunda geniß bir buzyalaÛÝnÝn i•inde gelißerek 2500 m yŸksekliÛe kadar indiÛi belirlenen buzullarÝn olußturduÛu cephe moren karmaßÝÛÝ ile temsil edilen †•ker VadisiÕdir. Yan, cephe, gerileme ve tŸmseksi morenlerden olußan bu moren karmaßÝÛÝnÝn en Ÿst kesimlerinde gŸncel kaya buzullarÝ da gšzlenir. DaÛÝn kuzeydoÛusuna doÛru uzanan dar bir vadi olan …ksŸzdere Vadisi boyunca 2900 m yŸkseklikten 2300 mÕye kadar uzanan ilk evreye ait bir yan moren •ifti ile yukarÝ kesimlerde ikinci evreye ait tŸmseksi moren karmaßÝÛÝ ve bir sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ bulunmaktadÝr. Daha kŸ•Ÿk bir vadi olan KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi buzul •škelleri ise, Aksu VadisiÕnin batÝsÝnda, 2850-2600 m yŸkseklikleri arasÝnda kalan kuzeybatÝ uzanÝmlÝ kŸ•Ÿk bir vadide gelißmiß yan ve tŸmseksi morenlerden olußan bir karmaßÝk ile temsil edilir. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn gŸneyinde buzul vadisi olußumu bulunmamakla birlikte 3300 ile 2500 m yŸkseklikleri arasÝnda kalan Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda ilk iki evreye ait yan ve cephe morenleri ile DikkartÝn DomuÕnun etrafÝnda gelißmiß sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ gšzlenmektedir. Aksu VadisiÕnde bulunan gŸncel buzulda yapÝlan gšzlemler, TŸrkiyeÕnin diÛer buzullarÝnda olduÛu gibi burada da, en azÝndan 20. yŸzyÝlÝn baßlarÝndan bu yana bir gerilemenin olduÛunu belirtmektedir. Anahtar kelimeler: Erciyes, Ge• Kuvaterner, gŸncel buzul, kaya buzullarÝ, kozmojenik yŸzey yaßlandÝrma, moren. ABSTRACT Mount Erciyes, highest stratovolcano of Cappadocian Volcanic Province, witnessed widespread valley glaciations during Late Quaternary. It is characterized by four valleys and one ridge that contain a small glacier and glacial deposits on its flanks. Aksu Valley is a northwest trending U-shaped valley with an actual glacier descending down to 3400 m of elevation. Few dead ice fragments covered by debris are also present starting from the lower end of the glacier. Lateral and terminal moraines, together with young ablation moraines and outwash plains indicate three glacial epochs. The oldest and most extensive one is characterized by two well-preserved, 100 m high lateral moraines at altitudes 2900-2200 m. A vast outwash plain derived from these moraines contains large andesitic blocks up to 3-4 m in diameter. Another important glacial valley, situated on the eastarn side of the mountain, is †•ker Valley with a wide cirque area originated from a volcanic amphitheatre. It contains a vast terminal moraine complex covering the present ski area. On the southern rim of the mountain, several rock glaciers are also observed. …ksŸzdere Valley is a northeast trending narrow glacial valley containing two lateral moraines between M. A. SarÝkaya E-mail: sarikaya@hacettepe.edu.tr Yerbilimleri 27 2900-2300 m of altitude. Between these moraines, a younger hummocky moraine complex and an outwash plain are present. There is no glacial valley development on the southern side of the volcano. However, on the Topaktaß Ridge, small lateral and terminal moraines are present at altitudes between 3300 and 2500 m. KÝrkpÝnar Valley, situated to the west of Aksu Valley, is covered by a northwest oriented small terminal moraine complex made up of lateral and hummocky moraines between 2850 and 2600 m of altitude. The data available on the modern glacier situated in the Aksu Valley, indicate that the recent glacier retreat probably started at least at the beginning of the 20th century. Key words: Erciyes, Late Quaternary, actual glacier, rock glacier, cosmogenic surface dating, moraines. GÜRÜÞ Kapadokya Volkanik BšlgesiÕnin en yŸksek stratovolkanÝ olan Erciyes DaÛÝ (3917 m), KayseriÕnin 20 km gŸneyinde yer alÝr (Þekil 1). TŸrkiyeÕnin 2500-3000 mÕyi aßan bir•ok daÛÝnda (AÛrÝ, SŸphan ile Toroslar ve DoÛu Karadeniz DaÛlarÝ) olduÛu gibi, Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda da Ge• Kuvaterner buzullaßmasÝna ait izlere rastlamak mŸmkŸndŸr. Bšlgede šzellikle volkanolojiye yšnelik •alÝßmalar olduk•a fazladÝr (Pasquare, 1968; Innocenti vd., 1975; AyrancÝ, 1991; Notsu vd., 1995; Þen, 1997). Buna karßÝn, tŸm TŸrkiyeÕde olduÛu gibi, ErciyesÕde de buzullaßmaya ve buzul •škellerine yšnelik •alÝßmalar •ok sÝnÝrlÝ sayÝdadÝr (Pent- ErciyesÿDaÛÝ 3917ÿm Þekil 1. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn yer bulduru haritasÝ. Figure 1. Location map of the Erciyes Volcano. her, 1905; Bartsch, 1930; Blumenthal, 1938; Erin•, 1951; GŸner ve Emre, 1983). Erciyes DaÛÝÕnda en son •alÝßmayÝ ger•ekleßtiren Þen (1997), volkanizmayÝ iki aßamada incelemißtir. Birinci Ko• DaÛÝ aßamasÝndan sonra gelißen Yeni Erciyes volkanizmasÝ bugŸnkŸ Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn olußtuÛu aßamayÝ belirtir. 1.7 my (Innocenti vd., 1975; Ercan vd., 1994; Notsu vd., 1995) šnce andezitik, dasitik ve bazaltik lav akÝntÝlarÝ ile baßlayan bu aßama, dasitik, riyodasitik karakterdeki kuvvetli patlamalÝ volkanizma ile 0.14 my (Ercan vd., 1994; Notsu vd., 1995) šncesine kadar sŸrmŸßtŸr. Volkanik kaya•lara ait bšlgede saptanan en son 0.083 myÕdÝr. Notsu vd. (1995) tarafÝndan belirlenen bu yaß PerikartÝn DomuÕnun yaklaßÝk 4 km kuzeyinde bulunan ‚arÝk Tepe (1719 m)Õdeki dasitik lavlara ait- SarÝkaya vd. tir. Bu tarihten sonra daÛÝn doÛu yamacÝnda bulunan amfitiyatroyu olußturan volkanik •ÝÛÝn olußumu ile Erciyes VolkanÝ en son halini almÝßtÝr (Þen, 1997). Ge• KuvaternerÕin Ÿ• evresinde ge•irdiÛi buzullaßma sonucu ise, Erciyes bugŸnkŸ gšrŸnŸmŸnŸ kazanmÝßtÝr. BuzullaßmanÝn yoÛun olarak gelißtiÛi kuzey, kuzeybatÝ ve kuzeydoÛuya bakan yama•larda aßÝnma o denli ilerlemißtir ki, GŸner ve Emre, (1983)Õnin belirttiÛi gibi daÛÝn iskeleti ortaya •ÝkmÝßtÝr. Buna karßÝn, daÛÝn gŸney yamacÝnda Erciyes tam bir volkan gšrŸnŸmŸndedir. Þekil 2. Erciyes VolkanÝ buzul •škelleri haritasÝ. Figure 2. Glacial deposits map of the Erciyes Volcano. 28 Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda buzullaßmanÝn esas olarak dšrt vadi boyunca gelißtiÛi gšzlenmektedir (Þekil 2). Bunlar; (1) kuzeybatÝya doÛru uzanan Aksu, (2) kuzeydoÛuya doÛru uzanan …ksŸzdere ve (3) bugŸnkŸ kayak merkezini de kÝsmen i•ine alan ve doÛuya bakan †•ker VadileriÕdir. DiÛer buzullaßma bšlgeleri ise genelde kŸ•Ÿk bir buzyalaÛÝndan itibaren gelißen ancak fazla ilerleyemeyen buzullarÝn olußturduÛu (4) gŸneydeki Topaktaß SÝrtÝ ve (5) batÝdaki KÝrkpÝnar VadisiÕdir. AMA‚ VE Y…NTEM TŸrkiyeÕde Kuvaterner buzullaßmasÝ ile ilgili olarak yapÝlan daha šnceki •alÝßmalarda buzullaß- Yerbilimleri 29 ma evrelerine ait mutlak (nicel) bir yaß verisi bulunmamaktadÝr. Ge•miß evrelere ait buzullarÝn biriktirme ve aßÝndÝrma šzelliklerine bakÝlarak ve bu yapÝlar arasÝndaki stratigrafik ve morfolojik ilißkiler incelenilerek yapÝlan bu tŸr stratigrafik yaßlandÝrma yšntemleri ancak gšreceli yaß verebilmektedir. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda yapÝlan bu •alÝßmanÝn temel amacÝ, daÛÝn Ge• KuvaternerÕden gŸnŸmŸze kadar ge•irdiÛi buzullaßma evrelerinin mutlak yaßlandÝrmasÝnÝn yapÝlabilmesi i•in gerekli šn •alÝßmalarÝn ger•ekleßtirilmesidir. Bu ama• doÛrultusunda šncelikle aßÝnma ve birikme yapÝlarÝnÝn (šzellikle moren setleri) kapsamlÝ haritalarÝ GPS kullanÝlarak yapÝlmÝßtÝr. Bunun yanÝ sÝra, moren setlerini olußturan buzul •škellerinin (till) ve sandur dŸzlŸklerinin sedimantolojik tanÝmlamalarÝ yapÝlmÝß ve kozmojenik 36Cl yŸzey yaßlandÝrmasÝ (Cosmogenic 36Cl surface exposure dating) i•in šrnekler toplanmÝßtÝr. BUZUL ‚…KELLERÜ Aksu Vadisi Genel gšrŸnŸmŸ itibariyle tipik bir tekne ßekilli buzul vadisi olan Aksu Vadisi, Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn kuzeybatÝya bakan yamacÝnda zirveden itibaren gelißmiß yaklaßÝk 4 km uzunluÛunda dar ve derin bir vadidir (Þekil 2, 3 ve 4). BŸyŸk Erciyes (3917 m) ve KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes (3703 m) zirveleri ile baßlayan vadi esas olarak iki kÝsma ayrÝlÝr. Bunlar, ana vadi ile kuzeydoÛusunda ana vadiye paralel olarak uzanan ve yaklaßÝk 1 km sonra 3000 m kotunda ana vadiye baÛlanan asÝlÝ vadidir. Ana vadi, KŸ•Ÿk ve BŸyŸk Erciyes zirvelerinin kuzey eteklerinde iki adet buzyalaÛÝ ile baßlar. AsÝlÝ vadi ise, bu iki buzyalaÛÝndan farklÝ bir buzyalaÛÝna sahiptir. YŸksek ve dik sÝrtlarla •evrili Aksu Vadisi 3917 m kotundan 3000 mÕye kadar dik bir eÛimle al•alÝr ve en dar olduÛu (375 m) noktadan itibaren 2600 m kotuna kadar sabit bir eÛimle uzanÝr. YukarÝda genel morfolojik šzellikleri belirtilen Aksu Vadisi tekne vadi šzelliÛini gŸnŸmŸze kadar sŸregelen buzul aktiviteleri nedeniyle almÝßtÝr. Bu aktivitenin aßÝndÝrma ve biriktirme izlerini Aksu Vadisi ve asÝlÝ vadi i•inde gšrmek mŸmkŸndŸr. Buzul aßÝndÝrma izlerinin en šnemli kanÝtlarÝ vadinin 2900 m kotundan daha yŸksek olan kesimlerinde bulunan ve ortalama rakÝmlarÝ 3300-3400 m olan dik ve keskin sÝrtlar (ar•- Þekil 3. Aksu Vadisi buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1: Birinci evre morenleri, M2: Ükinci evre morenleri, M3: †•ŸncŸ evre morenleri, S1: Birinci evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, S2: Ükinci evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, S3: †•ŸncŸ evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, B: GŸncel buzul, …b: …lŸ buzul, Em: Erime moreni, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir, : Foto bakÝß yšnlerini gšstermektedir). Figure 3. Glacial deposits map of Aksu Valley (M1: 1st epoch moraine, M2: 2nd epoch moraine, M3: 3rd epoch moraine, S1: 1st epoch outwash plain, S2: 2nd epoch outwash plain, S3: 3rd epoch outwash plain, B: actual glacial, …b: Dead ice, Em: Ablation moraine, Moraine crests are indicated by thick lines, : Indicates the view directions of the pictures). tes) ile 3500 mÕden sonra bulunan ve taban yŸkseklikleri ortalamasÝ 3550 m olan buzyalaklarÝdÝr. Bunun yanÝ sÝra, buzulun ana kaya Ÿzerinden ge•erken cilalayarak olußturduÛu hšrgŸ•kayalar ile, •ok daha kŸ•Ÿk boyutlu olsa da, buzulun i•erdiÛi ince malzemelerce •izilmiß yŸzeyler ve buzul yontmasÝ sonucu gelißmiß hilal ßekilleri (crescent marks) de gšzlenir (Þekil 5 ve 6). SarÝkaya vd. 30 Þekil 4. Aksu VadisiÕnin genel gšrŸnŸmŸ (Arka planda, sol tarafta BŸyŸk Erciyes (3917 m), saÛ tarafta ise KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes (3703 m) zirveleri gšzŸkmektedir. FotoÛrafÝn •ekildiÛi sÝrt 1. evre yan morenini (M1), zirvenin alt kÝsmÝndaki beyaz alan gŸncel buzulu (B), aßaÛÝdaki dŸz alan ise 2. evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnŸ (S2) temsil etmektedir, fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 3Õe bakÝnÝz). Figure 4. General view of Aksu Valley (Greater Erciyes Peak (3917 m) on the left and Little Erciyes Peak (3703 m) on the right. Picture is taken from the top of the 1st epoch lateral moraine (M1) from where the actual glacier (B), and the 2nd epoch outwash plain (S2) can be seen, see Figure 3 for picture location). Aksu VadisiÕnde buzul aßÝndÝrma yer ßekillerinin yanÝ sÝra, bir•ok buzul birikinti yer ßekilleri de bulunmaktadÝr. Bu vadi boyunca birikinti yer ßekillerini Ÿ• evrede incelemek mŸmkŸndŸr. En yaßlÝ evreye (birinci evre) ait buzul •škelleri genellikle yan morenlerden olußan ve 2800-2900 m kotundan baßlayÝp, Aksu YaylasÝÕnÝn bulunduÛu 2200 mÕye kadar ilerleyen moren karmaßÝÛÝ (M1) ile temsil edilirler (Þekil 3 ve 4). BaßlangÝ•ta iki adet bŸyŸk yan morenden olußan karmaßÝk, 2600 mÕden sonra belli belirsiz sÝrtlar halinde devam eder. Belirgin bir bitki šrtŸsŸnŸn gelißtiÛi bu moren karmaßÝÛÝnÝn yarÝ pekißmiß bileßenleri ve aßÝnmÝß morfolojileri nedeniyle Pleyistosen sonunda olußtuklarÝ belirtilmißtir (Erin•, 1951; GŸner ve Emre, 1983). Vadinin her iki tarafÝnda bulunan yan morenlerin yŸkseklikleri Aksu Vadisi tabanÝndan itibaren yaklaßÝk 60-100 m, genißlikleri ise 60-120 m civarÝndadÝr. Gerek yŸkseklik ve doÛrultularÝ, gerekse fasiyes šzelliklerinin benzer olmalarÝ bu morenlerin aynÝ evrede olußtuklarÝ izlenimini vermektedir. Vadi bo- yunca kuzeybatÝya doÛru birbirlerine paralel bir ßekilde uzanan yan morenler, 2600 mÕden sonra gelißmiß flŸvyal etki nedeniyle ilksel gšrŸnŸmlerini kaybetmißlerdir. Birinci evre morenleri Aksu YaylasÝ (2200 m) civarÝnda gelißen volkanizma nedeniyle KaragŸllŸ Domu yerleßimine ait piroklastik akÝß, yayÝlma ve geri dŸßme •škelleri tarafÝndan Ÿzerlenmißlerdir (Þekil 7). Birinci evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn olußturduÛu sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S1) Aksu YaylasÝ (2200 m)Õndan itibaren HacÝlar (1550 m)Õa doÛru devam eden bšlgeyi kaplar durumdadÝr. BuzullaßmayÝ izleyen evrede Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn eteklerindeki parazit konilerde meydana gelen ikincil volkanizma ile bu sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnŸn šrtŸldŸÛŸ gšzlenmektedir (Þekil 7). Aksu VadisiÕnde gelißen ikinci evreye ait buzullaßma 3000-3100 m kotunda, asÝlÝ vadi ile ana vadinin gŸney kenarÝndan itibaren yaklaßÝk 300500 m uzunluÛa ve 50-70 m yŸksekliÛe sahip ikißer •ift yan moren (M2) ile temsil edilir (Þekil 8). Morenleri olußturan buzul •škellerinin bile- Yerbilimleri Þekil 5. Buzulun ilerlemesi sÝrasÝnda taßÝdÝÛÝ ince taneli sedimanlarÝn bir andezit bloÛunu •izmesi sonucu olußmuß buzul •izikleri (…rnekte buzul akÝß yšnŸ ilk šnce saÛdan sola (veya tersi) iken bloÛun dšnmesi ile kalemin sivri ucunun gšsterdiÛi yšnde ikincil buzul •izikleri (birincil •izikleri keser halde) gelißmißtir). Figure 5.Striations developed by fine grained sediments within the flowing glacier on the surface of an andesitic block (Example shows two well developed striations, first from left to right (or visa versa) and a second (younger since they cut the first ones) towards the upper left corner of the picture). 31 Þekil 7. Aksu VadisiÕnin aßaÛÝ kesimlerindeki birinci evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S1) ve yan morenlerini (M1) kesen KaragŸllŸ DomÕu (K) (Arka planda Kayseri ßehri gšrŸlmektedir, fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 3Õe bakÝnÝz). Figure 7. KaragŸllŸ Dome (K) cutting the 1st epoch outwash plain (S1) and lateral moraines (M1) on the lower end of Aksu Valley (Kayseri town on the background, see Figure 3 for picture location). Sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnde 1,5-4 m tane boyuna sahip iri bloklarÝn yanÝ sÝra birka• cm •apÝ olan daha ince tane boyutlu malzeme de bulunmaktadÝr (Þekil 9). Aksu VadisiÕnde bulunan Ÿ•ŸncŸ evreye ait morenler buzulun gerilemesi esnasÝnda gelißmiß erime morenlerinden (ablation moraines) (M3) Þekil 6. Buzulun uyguladÝÛÝ basÝn• nedeniyle kaya•tan yontarak olußturduÛu hilal ßekilleri (AkÝß yšnŸ fotoÛrafÝn Ÿst kÝsmÝndan aßaÛÝya doÛrudur). Figure 6. Crescent marks developed due to the pressure applied by flowing glacier (Flow from top towards bottom). ßenleri genelde kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli olup, 5-20 cm •apÝndadÝr. Bunun yanÝ sÝra, •apÝ 2-4 m arasÝnda deÛißen bloklar da ince taneli bir matriks i•erisinde yŸzer durumdadÝrlar. Yer yer bitki šrtŸsŸnŸn de gelißtiÛi bu morenlerin cephe setleri daha sonraki evrelerde gelißen flŸvyal etki sonucu bozulmußtur. Ancak bu morenlere ait sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S2) Aksu Vadisi tabanÝ boyunca 2500 m kotuna kadar devam eder (bkz. Þekil 3). Þekil 8. †• adet 2. evre yan moreni (M2) ve bunlardan birinin kesiti (TabakalanmanÝn ve tane boyu ayrÝßmasÝnÝn gšzlenmediÛi kum matriks destekli til i•inde yŸzen bloklar. FotoÛrafÝn sol tarafÝndaki beyaz blok yaklaßÝk 2 m •apÝndadÝr). Figure 8. Three 2nd epoch lateral moraines (M2) and a cross-section through one of them (Note the non-stratified, non-sorted nature of the till and blocks floating in a sandy matrix. The white boulder to the left is approximately 2 m in diameter, see Figure 3 for picture location). SarÝkaya vd. 32 bloklar ile šlŸ buz par•alarÝ karÝßÝk halde bulunurlar. †•ŸncŸ evre buzullarÝndan itibaren olußmuß sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S3) 3200 mÕden 2800 m kotuna kadar devam eder. Nispeten dŸz bir topoÛrafyaya sahip olan sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ i•inde 30-50 cmÕlik kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli taneler gšzlenir. …ksŸzdere Vadisi Þekil 9. Aksu Vadisi 1. evre saÛ yan moreni (M1) ve 2. evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S2) (Bloklar 2-4 m •apÝnda olup sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ gŸncel akarsu (a) tarafÝndan kesilmißtir, fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 3Õe bakÝnÝz). Figure 9. The 1st epoch right lateral moraine (M1) and the 2nd epoch outwash plain (S2) (Blocks are 2 to 4 m in diameter and a recent river (a) cuts though the outwash plain, see Figure 3 for picture location). olußur (Þekil 10). Hem Aksu VadisiÕnde, hem de ana vadiye baÛlanan asÝlÝ vadide 3100-3150 m kotunda bulunan bu morenleri olußturan •škellerin tane boyu birka• 10 cmÕden 3-5 mÕlik bloklara kadar uzanÝr. Gerek •ok gen• olmalarÝ, gerekse de •ok az oranda ince boyutlu malzeme i•ermelerinden dolayÝ bloklar yerlerinde sabit deÛillerdir. ‚ok kšßeli tane boyuna sahip olan Þekil 10. Aksu Vadisi 3. evre erime morenlerinin (Em) buzuldan itibaren gšrŸnŸßŸ (Geri planda 2. evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, 1. evre saÛ yanal moreni (M1), 1. evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S1) ve KaragŸllŸ DomÕu (K) gšrŸlmektedir, fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 3Õe bakÝnÝz). Figure 10. The general view of the 3rd epoch ablation moraines (Em) from the glacier (The 2nd epoch outwash plain (S2) and 1st epoch right lateral moraine (M1), the 1st epoch outwash plain (S1) and KaragŸllŸ Dome (K) can be observed on the background, see Figure 3 for picture location). …ksŸzdere Vadisi, Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn kuzeydoÛuya bakan yamacÝndan itibaren 2150 m yŸksekliÛe kadar yaklaßÝk 6 km uzanan bir buzul vadisidir (Þekil 2 ve 11). …ksŸzdere vadisi 1.5 km genißliÛinde ve 2 km uzunluÛunda geniß bir buzyalaÛÝndan itibaren baßlar. Vadinin en dar yeri, SaÛsÝkalÝk ve KÝr•ÝllÝseki SÝrtlarÝ arasÝnda dŸzgŸn bir ßekilde uzanan tepeler arasÝnda yaklaßÝk 250 m kadardÝr. ErciyesÕin zirvesinden itibaren kuzeydoÛuya doÛru 45-60oÕlik bir eÛimle baßlayan buzyalaÛÝ gŸnŸmŸzde zirve ve •evresindeki dik yama•lardan dškŸlen malzemelerle tamamen kaplÝ bir haldedir (Þekil 12). 29003000 m kotuna kadar devam eden yama• dškŸntŸlerinin olußturduÛu yŸksek eÛimli topoÛrafya, 3000 m kotundan sonra yerini biri 2800 m di- Þekil 11. …ksŸzdere Vadisi buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1: Birinci evre morenleri, M2: Ükinci evre morenleri, S1: Birinci evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, Tm: TŸmseksi moren, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir, : Foto bakÝß yšnlerini gšstermektedir). Figure 11. Glacial deposits map of …ksŸzdere Valley (M1: 1st epoch moraine, M2: 2nd epoch moraine, S1: 1st epoch outwash plain, Tm: Hummocky moraine, Moraine crests are indicated by thick lines, : Indicates the view directions of the pictures). Yerbilimleri 33 Þekil 12. …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde gšzlenen 1. evreye ait saÛ ve sol yanal moren setleri (M1) ve arasÝnda gelißmiß tŸmseksi morenler (Tm) (fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 11Õe bakÝnÝz). Figure 12. …ksŸzdere Valley 1st epoch right lateral moraines (M1) and hummocky moraines (Tm) in between (see Figure 11 for picture location). Ûeri ise 2900 mÕde bulunan cephe morenlerinin olußturduÛu iki basamaÛa bÝrakÝr. Bu basamaklarÝn arka kesimlerinde ise kŸ•Ÿk tepeler ve •ukur alanlarÝn bulunduÛu bir morfoloji gšzlenir. Alt basamaktan itibaren vadi flŸvyal etki ile aßÝnarak 2100-2000 m kotunda son bulmaktadÝr. Aksu VadisiÕnde gšzlemlenen birinci ve ikinci evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn eßlenikleri …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde de gšrŸlmektedir. Her ne kadar gšzlenemese de, buzyalaÛÝ i•erisinde bulunan ve 3400 m kotundan 3000 mÕye kadar devam eden geniß ve kalÝn alŸvyal yelpaze šrtŸsŸnŸn gen• morenleri (Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre) ŸzerlediÛi dŸßŸnŸlmektedir. …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnin her iki yanÝnda 2800 mÕden baßlayarak 2250 m kotuna kadar devam eden yan moren •iftinin (M1) vadi tabanÝndan itibaren yŸkseklikleri 60-100 m, genißlikleri ise 50150 m kadardÝr (Þekil 12). Yan morenlerin yŸksekliklerinin, uzunluklarÝnÝn ve sedimantolojik šzelliklerinin benzer olmasÝ aynÝ evrede olußtuklarÝnÝn birer belirtisidir. YarÝ pekißmiß, matriks destekli bir gšrŸnŸm sunan bu birinci evre morenleri, yarÝ •aplarÝ birka• 10 cmÕden 3-5 mÕlik bloklara kadar deÛißen bileßenler i•erirler. Riyolit ve bazalt gibi volkanik kškenli kaya• par•alarÝ i•eren morenlerin Ÿzerleri yosun ve •alÝlÝklarÝn olußturduÛu seyrek bir bitki šrtŸsŸ ile kaplÝdÝr. Birinci evre buzullaßmanÝn olußturduÛu cephe morenleri daha sonra bšlgede gelißen flŸvyal etki nedeniyle aßÝnmÝßlardÝr. …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde gšzlemlenen birinci evre buzullaßmasÝ sÝrasÝnda gelißen sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S1) 2600 m kotundan baßlar ve 1200 mÕye kadar devam eder. Genellikle 20-30 cmÕlik bloklar ile daha ince tane boyutlu malzemeden olußan sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ flŸvyal etkinin artmasÝ sonucu giderek belirginsizleßir. Vadideki ikinci buzul evresi 2700 m ve 2900 m kotunda birbirini izleyen iki set gšrŸnŸmŸnde olan ve buzul gerilemesini ifade eden cephe morenleri (M2) ile kendini gšsterir (Þekil 11). Yerden yŸkseklikleri 100-150 mÕyi bulan bu cephe morenlerinin genißlikleri yaklaßÝk 30-50 m olup, uzunluklarÝ vadiyi dolduracak ßekilde 100 m civarÝndadÝr. Bileßenleri genellikle 10-20 cmÕden 3-5 mÕye kadar olan bloklardan olußan sšz konusu morenler, yarÝ pekißmiß, matriks destekli kil-kum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ i•eren yÝÛÝßÝmlar halindedir (Þekil 13). YŸzeylerinde seyrek de olsa bir bitki šrtŸsŸ gelißmißtir. Her iki cephe moreni gerisinde ise, genellikle dŸzensiz bir daÛÝlÝm gšsteren, kŸ•Ÿk tepecikler ile •ukur alanlardan olußan bšlgeler (Òknob-andkettle topographyÓ, Gravenor ve Kupsch, 1959) gšzlenmektedir. Tepecikler 2-4 m yŸksekliÛinde, 5-10 m genißliÛinde hafif yuvarlak ve genel- SarÝkaya vd. 34 hemen hemen aynÝ evrede olußmuß tŸmseksi morenler (hummocky moraines) olarak yorumlanmÝßlardÝr. †•ker Vadisi Þekil 13. …ksŸzdere Vadisi i•erisinde bulunan 2. evre cephe moren setlerinden 2900 mÕde olanÝ (M2) ve kozmojenik yŸzey yaßlandÝrmasÝ i•in šrnek alÝmÝ (fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 11Õe bakÝnÝz). Figure 13. The 2nd epoch frontal moraine (M2) at 2900 m, and sampling for cosmogenic dating, (see Figure 11 for picture location). likle uzunlamasÝna olup, 1-3 m derinliÛinde ve 4-6 m genißliÛinde •ukur alanlar ile birbirlerinden ayrÝlmÝßlardÝr. Tepeciklerin bileßenleri yarÝ pekißmiß, kil-kum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ i•eren, matriks destekli ve kahverengi-sarÝmsÝ renkli 5-10 cm •aplÝ •akÝllar ile 1-1,5 m •apÝndaki bloklardan olußur. ‚ukurluklar ise genellikle kil, yer yer kum boyu malzeme ile šrtŸlŸ haldedir. YaÛÝßlÝ mevsimlerde gšlcŸklerin olußtuÛu bu alanlar, yaz aylarÝnda kurur ve bitki šrtŸsŸ ile kaplanÝr. Cephe morenleri gerisindeki bu tepecikler onlarla Erciyes VolkanÝ zirvesinden itibaren doÛuya doÛru uzanan ve kuzeyde KÝr•ÝllÝseki SÝrtÝ (3357 m) ile gŸneyde KuzuyataÛÝ Tepe (3667 m) arasÝnda bulunan †•ker Vadisi volkanik •škme ile olußan bir amfitiyatroyu i•ine alÝr (Þekil 14 ve 15). 1-1.5 km genißliÛinde, 2-2.5 km uzunluÛunda ve 800-900 m derinliÛinde dik yama•larla •evrili bu amfitiyatro Ge• KuvaternerÕde †•ker VadisiÕnde gelißmiß buzullar i•in bir buzyalaÛÝ ißlevini gšrmŸßtŸr. Homojen bir morfoloji arz etmeyen vadi, †•ker mevkii civarÝnda etrafÝ kapalÝ •ukur bir buzyalaÛÝ, Þeytan SÝrtÝ (2734 m) ve Bokluyurt SÝrtÝ (2663 m) kotunda ise basamaklar halinde gelißmiß tepe ve •ukur alanlardan olußur. Yer yer flŸvyal etki nedeni ile aßÝnan vadi, gŸneyde Þeytan Deresi kuzeyde ise Bokluyurt Deresi ile sÝnÝrlÝdÝr. YukarÝda genel morfolojik šzellikleri aktarÝlan †•ker Vadisi i•inde KuvaternerÕde gelißen Ÿ• evreli buzullaßmanÝn izleri gšrŸlmektedir. Birinci evre buzullaßmasÝna ait morenler (M1) 2650 m kotunda bulunan Þeytan SÝrtÝÕndan itibaren baß- Þekil 14. †•ker Vadisi buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1: Birinci evre morenleri, M2: Ükinci evre morenleri, M3: †•ŸncŸ evre morenleri, S: Sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, Kb: Kaya buzulu, Gm: Gerileme moreni, Tm: TŸmseksi moren, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir, : Foto bakÝß yšnŸnŸ gšstermektedir). Figure 14. Glacial deposits map of †•ker Valley (M1: 1st epoch moraine, M2: 2nd epoch moraine, M3: 3rd epoch moraine, S: Outwash plain, Kb: Rock glacier, Gm: Recessional moraine, Tm: Hummocky moraine, Moraine crests are indicated by thick lines, : Indicates the view direction of the pictures). Yerbilimleri 35 Ûu ikinci evre moren karmaßÝÛÝ birinci evre morenlerini Þeytan SÝrtÝ civarÝnda Ÿzerler. Þekil 15. Erciyes VolkanÝÕna doÛudan bakÝß (Arka planda Erciyes Zirvesi ve volkanik •škmeyle olußtuktan sonra †•ker buzyalaÛÝnÝn gelißtiÛi amfitiyatro ile šn planda kayak merkezi gšrŸlmektedir). Figure 15. View of Erciyes Volcano from east (The Greater Erciyes Peak and its amphitheater formed by volcanic collapse that later overridden by †•ker glacier on the background and the ski area on the foreground). lar ve Erciyes SÝrtÝÕna kadar devam ederek 2470 mÕde sonlanÝr. UzunlamasÝna sÝrt ve tepelerin olußturduÛu yarÝ tutturulmuß, birka• 10 cmÕden 2-7 m blok boyu malzemeye kadar bileßen i•eren bu moren karmaßÝÛÝ matriks destekli, kilkum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ i•eren, kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli sedimanlardan olußur. Genel gšrŸnŸmŸ kahverengi-sarÝ renkte olup, bileßenler arasÝnda gelißmiß ince toprak tabakasÝ Ÿzerinde yer yer bitki šrtŸsŸ gšzlenir. Birinci evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn olußturduÛu sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S1) gŸneyde Þeytan SÝrtÝ, kuzeyde ise Bokluyurt SÝrtÝÕnÝ takip ederek gŸnŸmŸzde kayak merkezi olarak kullanÝlan alan da dahil olmak Ÿzere Tekir YaylasÝÕnÝ da i•ine alan geniß bir bšlgede yŸzeylenir. Bu alan sadece birinci evre buzullarÝnÝn sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ olmayÝp, her Ÿ• dšneme ait bileßenleri de barÝndÝrÝr. 5-15 cm ile 1-2 m blok boyutunda sediman i•eren sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ daha sonra gelißmiß flŸvyal etkinlik nedeni ile yarÝlmÝßtÝr. †•ker VadisiÕnde gelißmiß ikinci evre buzullaßmanÝn izleri, …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde olduÛu gibi, iki basamak halinde gšzlenir. Birinci basamak 2700 m kotunda, ikinci basamak ise 2850 mÕde yer alÝr. Cephe morenlerinin (M2) olußturduÛu bu basamaklarÝn gerisinde •oÛunlukla gerileme morenleri ile tŸmseksi morenler bulunur. AnÝlan moren karmaßÝÛÝ kuzeyden ve gŸneyden ikißer •ift yan moren ile sÝnÝrlandÝrÝlmÝßtÝr. Bir•ok kŸ•Ÿk ve uzunlamasÝna moren setlerinin bulundu- Ükinci evre morenlerini olußturan ilk cephe moreninin vadi tabanÝndan yŸksekliÛi 70 m, genißliÛi ise 550 m kadardÝr. Arka bšlŸmŸnde 50x100 m genißliÛindeki bir alanda tŸmseksi morenler barÝndÝran bu ilk cephe moreninden sonra yŸksekliÛi 25-30 m, genißliÛi ise 350 m olan ikinci cephe moreni gelir. Yine bu moren setinin arkasÝnda 70x800 mÕlik bir alan kaplayan ve gerileme morenleri ile tŸmseksi morenlerden olußan bir bšlge yer alÝr. Bileßenleri birka• 20 cmÕden 2-5 m arasÝnda bloklara kadar deÛißen bu morenler, yarÝ pekißmiß matriks destekli, kil-kum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ i•eren ve seyrek bitki šrŸsŸnŸn gelißtiÛi bir gšrŸnŸm arz ederler (Þekil 16). Erciyes kayak alanÝnÝn Ÿst kÝsÝmlarÝnÝ da i•ine alan ikinci evre moren karmaßÝÛÝ 3000-3050 m kotunda bšlgede bulunan Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre morenleri (M3) tarafÝndan Ÿzerlenir. 50-70 m uzunluÛunda, 10-45 m genißliÛinde, 15-30 m yŸksekliÛinde uzunlamasÝna tepeciklerden olußan bu Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre morenlerinin en belirgin šzellikleri diÛerlerine gšre •ok daha gen• gšrŸnŸmlŸ olmalarÝdÝr. 3050 m kotunda bulunan cephe moreninin yŸksekliÛi 55 m, 3250 m kotundaki diÛer cephe morenin yŸksekliÛi ise 35 m kadardÝr. 3400 m kotunda bile kŸ•Ÿk buzyalaklarÝndan itibaren gelißmiß cephe moreni setlerine rastlanÝr. Gevßek, tutturulmamÝß, kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli, 50-80 cmÕden 3-8 mÕlik bloklara kadar sediman i•eren morenler hemen hemen hi• baÛlayÝcÝ malzeme Þekil 16.†•ker Vadisi i•erisinde 2. evre morenlerinden olußan karmaßÝk (M2) ile bunu Ÿzerleyen gŸncel kaya buzullarÝ (Kb) ve 3. evreye ait morenler (M3) (fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 14Õe bakÝnÝz). Figure 16. The 2nd epoch morainic complex (M2) within the †•ker Valley is overlain by 3rd epoch moraines and active rock glaciers (Kb) (see Figure 14 for picture location). SarÝkaya vd. 36 i•ermezler. Aksu VadisiÕnde gšzlenen son evre morenleri ile ortak šzelliklere sahip bu morenlerin onlarla aynÝ evrede olußtuklarÝ sšylenebilir. †•ker VadisiÕ nin 3000 ile 3250 m kotlarÝ arasÝnda, 15-20 m uzunluÛunda, yarÝ kapalÝ, sÝralÝ, yay ßekili tepecik ve •ukur alanlardan olußturan ve gevßek, tutturulmamÝß, 10-40 cmÕden 1-3 mÕye kadar bloklar i•eren aktif kaya buzullarÝ bulunmaktadÝr (Þekil 16). Bunun yanÝ sÝra bšlgede, kaya buzullarÝnÝn i•erisindeki šlŸ buz par•acÝklarÝnÝn zaman i•inde erimesi ve Ÿstteki sedimanlarÝn bu boßluÛa gš•mesi sonucu olußan huni ßekilli buz •ukuru ile bunlarÝn su ile dolmasÝ sonucu gelißen gšlcŸkler de gšzlenmektedir. Topaktaß SÝrtÝ ErciyesÕe gŸneyden bakÝldÝÛÝnda daÛ ger•ek bir volkan gšrŸnŸmŸndedir. DŸzenli bir eÛimle yŸkselen KuzuyataÛÝ SÝrtÝ daÛa bu šzelliÛini verir. Ancak kuzeyden bakÝldÝÛÝnda Erciyes DaÛÝ iskeletimsi bir gšrŸnŸm arz eder. GŸner ve Emre (1983) daÛÝn bu šzelliÛini kuzey yama•ta KuvaternerÕde gelißen etkin ve yaygÝn buzullaßmanÝn olußturduÛunu belirtmektedirler. Kuzey ve doÛu yama•larda sšz konusu evrelerde gelißmiß buzullaßmalar ile bu bšlgelerde buzyalaklarÝ ve buzul vadileri a•ÝlmÝßtÝr. GŸney ve batÝ yama•larda ise, kŸ•Ÿk boyutlu buzyalaklarÝndan itibaren gelißen buzullar, tekne ßekilli vadiler olußturamasalar da, sÝrtlar Ÿzerinde •škellerini bÝrakmÝßlardÝr. Erciyes zirvesinden itibaren gŸneye doÛru uzanarak KartÝnardÝ (2500 m) civarÝnda sona eren ve Topaktaß SÝrtÝ olarak anÝlan bšlge yan morenler ile bir cephe moreni i•ermektedir (Þekil 2 ve 17). BaßlangÝ•ta 3110 m kotunda kŸ•Ÿk bir buzyalaÛÝ da i•eren Topaktaß SÝrtÝ, batÝsÝnda Topaktaß Dere ve doÛusunda KuzuyataÛÝ SÝrtÝ ile sÝnÝrlandÝrÝlmÝßtÝr. Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda ilk iki evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn izlerini gšrmek mŸmkŸndŸr. Birinci evre morenleri (M1) 2700-2562 m kotlarÝ arasÝndaki alanda gšzlenir (Þekil 18). 250-400 m uzunluÛunda kuzey-gŸney doÛrultulu birka• moren sÝrtÝndan olußan birinci evre morenleri kuzey ve doÛudaki vadilerde bulunan eßlenikleri kadar gelißememißlerdir. DikkartÝn Domu tarafÝndan Ÿzerlenen birinci evre morenleri, 10-15 cm boyutundaki •akÝllar ile 2-3 mÕlik bloklardan olußmußtur. Ge- Þekil 17. Topaktaß SÝrtÝ buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1: Birinci evre morenleri, M2: Ükinci evre morenleri, S: Sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir). Figure 17. Glacial deposits map of Topaktaß Ridge (M1: 1st epoch moraine, M2: 2nd epoch moraine, S: Outwash plain, Moraine crests are indicated by thick lines). nellikle yarÝ tutturulmuß, matriks destekli, kilkum boyutunda malzeme i•eren morenler, kahverengi-sarÝmsÝ renktedirler. Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda gšzlemlenen ikinci evre moren karmaßÝÛÝ (M2) 3100 m kotunda, 600-650 m uzunluÛundaki birka• yan moren ile baßlar ve 2650 m kotunda son bulur. Birinci evre morenlerini Ÿzerleyen cephe moreninin yŸksekliÛi 60 m civarÝnda olup, uzunluÛu 450-500 m genißliÛi Yerbilimleri 37 Þekil 18. Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnÝ kaplayan 2. evre moren (M2) sÝrtÝndaki en bŸyŸk boyutlu bloktan šrnekleme. Figure 18. Sampling from the largest boulder available from the 2nd epoch moraines on Topaktaß Ridge. ise 70 m kadardÝr. 20-40 cm ile 2-5 m arasÝnda, kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli malzeme i•eren ikinci evre morenleri, kil-kum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ malzeme i•erirler ve Ÿzerlerinde yer yer bitki šrtŸsŸ gelißmißtir. Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda son evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn izlerine rastlanÝlmamÝßtÝr. SÝrtÝn gŸneye bakmasÝ ve son evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn olduÛu dšnemde daimi kar seviyesinin bšlgede bulunan buzyalaÛÝnÝn Ÿzerinde olmasÝ nedeniyle daÛÝn diÛer bšlgelerinde gšzlenen Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn burada gelißemediÛi sšylenebilir. Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda her iki evre buzullaßmasÝna ait sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S) DikkartÝn TepeÕnin batÝ ve doÛu kenarlarÝndan itibaren gelißmißtir. Bu bšlgede bulunan sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnŸn DikkartÝn Domu tarafÝndan šrtŸldŸÛŸ dŸßŸnŸlmektedir. KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi Aksu VadisiÕnin batÝsÝnda KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes zirvesi (3703 m)Õnden itibaren kuzeybatÝya doÛru uzanan KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi Ÿzerinde 2850-2600 m kotlarÝ arasÝndaki 1.5 km2Õlik alanda Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕndakilere benzer bir moren karmaßÝÛÝ gšzlenmektedir (Þekil 2, 19 ve 20). GŸneß alan a•Ýk bir konumda olmasÝ nedeniyle bšlgede šnemli bir buzyalaÛÝ gelißememißtir. DolayÝsÝyla bu bšlgede gelißen kŸ•Ÿk bir buzulun olußturduÛu morenler de •ok fazla yayÝlÝm gšstermezler. DeÛißik doÛrultularda, 40-60 m uzunluÛunda, 15-20 m genißliÛinde 5-10 m yŸksekliÛinde yan ve tŸmseksi morenlerden olußan bšlgede yer yer 5-10 m derinliÛinde uzunlamasÝna •ukur alanlar yer alÝr. 10-20 cm •akÝllar ile 1-4 m blok Þekil 19. KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1: Birinci evre morenleri, Tm: TŸmseksi moren, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir, : Foto bakÝß yšnŸnŸ gšstermektedir). Figure 19. Glacial deposits map of KÝrkpÝnar Ridge (M1: 1st epoch moraine, Tm: Hummocky moraine, Moraine crests are indicated by thick lines, : Indicates the view direction of the pictures). boyutundaki malzemeden olußan morenler, kilkum boyu matriks ile yarÝ tutturulmuß haldedir. Yer yer bitki šrtŸsŸnŸn gelißtiÛi morenler arasÝndaki •ukurluklarda gelißen gšlcŸklerde daha da yaygÝn bir bitki šrtŸsŸ gšzlenir. Bileßenlerinin tutturulmuß olmasÝ ve gelißmiß bitki šrtŸsŸ nedeniyle KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi morenleri birinci evre morenleri (M1) olarak ele alÝnmÝßtÝr. Þekil 20. KÝrkpÝnar VadisiÕnde gšzlenen 1. evre tŸmseksi morenler (Tm) (Arka planda KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes zirvesi gšrŸlmektedir, fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 19Õa bakÝnÝz). Figure 20. The southeastern view of the 1st epoch hummocky moraines (Tm) in the KÝrkpÝnar Valley. (Little Erciyes Peak on the background, see Figure 19 for picture location). SarÝkaya vd. G†NCEL BUZUL Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda gŸncel buzul sadece kuzeybatÝya bakan Aksu VadisiÕnde bulunmaktadÝr (Þekil 4). 20. yyÕÝn baßlarÝndan itibaren sistematik olmasa da, yapÝlan šl•Ÿmler Aksu BuzuluÕnun sŸrekli bir gerileme i•erisinde olduÛunu gšstermektedir (Þekil 21). Buzula ilißkin en eski veriler 1902 yÝlÝnÝn Temmuz ayÝna aittir. Penther (1905) buzul dilinin 3100 m kotuna kadar indiÛini belirtmekte ve TŸrkiyeÕnin yayÝnlanmÝß ilk buzul fotoÛrafÝ olduÛu dŸßŸnŸlen bir fotoÛrafÝ da •alÝßmasÝnda sunmaktadÝr. Penther (1905)Õin uzunluÛunu 700 m olarak hesapladÝÛÝ buzulun dil kÝsmÝnÝn olduÛu yerde bugŸn Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn cephe morenleri gšzlenmektedir. 1930 yÝlÝnÝn yaz aylarÝnda yapÝlan bir baßka •alÝßmada ise buzul dilinin 3250 m kotuna •ekildiÛi belirtilmektedir (Bartsch, 1930 ve 1935). Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda TŸrk araßtÝrmacÝlar tarafÝndan yapÝlan •alÝßmalar Erin• (1951 ve 1952a,b) tarafÝndan baßlatÝlmÝßtÝr. Erin• 1950 yÝlÝnÝn AÛustos ayÝnda yaptÝÛÝ •alÝßmada daimi kar sÝnÝrÝnÝn 3550 m kotunda olduÛunu ve buzulun 3380 mÕye •ekildiÛini belirtmißtir (Erin•, 1951 ve 1952a). AraßtÝrmacÝ ayrÝca Penther (1905)Õin •alÝßmasÝna atÝfta bulunarak buzulun yÝlda ortalama 3 m geri •ekildiÛini hesaplamÝßtÝr. Erin• (1951)Õe gšre 1950 yÝlÝnda 15 hektar alan kaplayan buzulun o zamanki uzunluÛu 550 m olup, kalÝnlÝÛÝ en fazla 50 m kadardÝr. Üzleyen yÝllarda Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda gŸncel buzul ve daha šnce- 38 ki evrelerdeki buzullaßmaya ilißkin •alÝßmalar devam etmißtir (Messerli, 1964, 1965, 1967; Birman, 1968). GŸnŸmŸze en yakÝn •alÝßma ise, GŸner ve Emre (1983) tarafÝndan yapÝlmÝßtÝr. Bu araßtÝrmacÝlar, buzulun uzunluÛunun 380 mÕye gerilediÛini ve buzul dilinin 3400 m kotuna ulaßtÝÛÝnÝ belirtmißlerdir. Bu •alÝßma kapsamÝnda yapÝlan arazi •alÝßmalarÝ ile gŸncel buzulun daha šnceki •alÝßmalarda da belirtildiÛi gibi gerilediÛi gšrŸlmŸßtŸr. GŸnŸmŸzde buzul, Aksu Vadisi i•erisinde BŸyŸk Erciyes (3917 m) ile KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes zirvesi (3703 m) arasÝnda kalan ge•idin BŸyŸk Erciyes zirvesine daha yakÝn olan kÝsmÝnda kuzeye bakan dik eÛimli yama•ta bulunmaktadÝr. YaklaßÝk 400 m uzunluÛunda olan buzulun son bulduÛu nokta 3420 m kotundadÝr. Buzulun šn kÝsmÝnda kopmuß šlŸ buz par•alarÝ ile •evreden dškŸlen bloklarÝn olußturduÛu moren karmaßÝÛÝ 3300 m kotuna kadar devam etmektedir. TARTIÞMA VE SONU‚LAR Erciyes VolkanÝ Ge• KuvaternerÕde Ÿ• buzullaßma evresi ge•irmißtir. Toplam dšrt ana vadi (Aksu, †•ker, …ksŸzdere ve KÝrkpÝnar Vadileri) ve bir sÝrtta (Topaktaß SÝrtÝ) gšzlenen buzullaßma sonucu •eßitli buzul aßÝndÝrma izleri ve biriktirme ßekilleri olußmußtur. …zellikle Aksu ve …ksŸzdere VadileriÕnde gšrŸlen tekne vadi karakteri ile †•ker buzulunun volkanik amfitiyatroyu ißleyerek yarattÝÛÝ bŸyŸk boyutlu buzyalaÛÝ šnemli Þekil 21. Buzulun zaman ve mekan i•indeki gelißimini gšsterir harita ve bšlgede •alÝßan •eßitli araßtÝrmacÝlara gšre buzul evrimi (kesikli •izgiler araßtÝrÝcÝlara gšre buzulun kapladÝÛÝ alanlarÝ gšstermektedir). Figure 21. Time and space relationships of the glacier and its evolution (dashed lines indicate the areas covered by the glacier) throughout the years according to various investigators. Yerbilimleri aßÝndÝrma izlerindendir. Ana kaya ve bloklar Ÿzerinde gšzlenen •izikler ve hilal ßekilleri de kŸ•Ÿk boyutlu aßÝndÝrma izlerine šrnek olarak verilebilir. Biriktirme ßekillerinden en šnemlilerini yan ve cephe morenleri olußturur. …zellikle birinci evreye ait yan morenlerin vadilerin •oÛunda 22002300 m kotuna kadar inmiß olmalarÝ ve olußturduklarÝ sÝrtlarÝn yŸksekliklerinin yer yer 100 mÕyi ge•mesi bunlarÝn en etkin buzul evresinin ŸrŸnŸ olduklarÝnÝ kußkuya yer vermeyecek ßekilde kanÝtlamaktadÝr. ‚alÝßmanÝn temel amacÝnÝ olußturan moren setleri Ÿzerindeki bloklardan kozmojenik yaß tayini i•in toplanan šrneklerden henŸz nicel bir yaß bulgusu olmasa da, birinci evreye ait morenlerin (M1) ve sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnŸn (S1) KaragŸllŸ DomuÕndan •Ýkan piroklastik malzemeler ile šrtŸlmŸß olmasÝ buzullaßmanÝn baÛÝl yaßÝ hakkÝnda bilgi vermektedir. Her ne kadar KaragŸllŸ DomuÕndan yaß verisi bulunmasa da, benzer bileßim ve volkanik ge•miße sahip PerikartÝn ve DikkartÝn DomlarÝÕnÝn (Þen vd., 2002) 0.14±0.02 ile 0.11±0.03 My yaß aralÝÛÝnda olußtuklarÝ (Ercan vd., 1994) gšzšnŸne alÝndÝÛÝnda, birinci buzul evresinin baÛÝl yaßÝnÝn yukarÝda belirtilen yaßtan daha fazla olmasÝ gerektiÛi a•ÝktÝr. Kuvaterner stratigrafisi i•inde 6. buzul evresi olarak bilinen (125 000 yÝl šnce) evreye karßÝlÝk gelebilecek bu morenlerin kesin yaßlarÝ kozmojenik yaß tayini sonucu daha da net bir ßekilde belirlenebilecektir. ‚ok daha az yaygÝn olan ikinci evre yan ve cephe morenleri ise, šzellikle …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde gšrŸldŸÛŸ Ÿzere, gerileme morenleri ve tŸmseksi morenler olarak bulunurlar. Her ne kadar yan ve cephe morenlerinin olußum mekanizmalarÝ a•Ýk bir ßekilde anlaßÝlabilmiß ise de, tŸmseksi morenler hakkÝnda tam bir fikir birliÛi bulunmamaktadÝr. Konu ile ilgilenen araßtÝrmacÝlarÝn bir•oÛu tŸmseksi morenlerin ana buzul dilinden koparak šlŸ buz haline gelen buzullarÝn Ÿzerindeki, i•indeki ve/veya altÝndaki sedimanlarÝn zamanla šbekler halinde birikmesi sonucu olußtuklarÝ konusunda gšrŸß birliÛi i•indedirler (Eyles, 1983; Benn, 1992; Bennett ve Boulton, 1993; Eyles vd., 1998; Klassen ve Hughes 2000; Boone ve Eyles, 2001). †lkemizde bilinen en yaygÝn tŸmseksi morenler, Orta ToroslarÕda GeyikdaÛ civarÝndaki Namaras VadisiÕnde gelißmiß olup, •ok geniß alanlar (30 km2) kaplarlar (‚iner vd., 1999; ‚iner, 2003). 39 †•ŸncŸ evreye ait morenler genellikle taze gšrŸnŸmlŸ ve bitki šrtŸsŸnŸn gelißmediÛi, baÛlayÝcÝ i•ermeyen iri bloklara sahip erime ve cephe morenlerinden olußurlar. †• vadide de gšzlemlenen bu morenlerin yaklaßÝk olarak 1500-1800 yÝllarÝ arasÝnda etkin olan KŸ•Ÿk Buzul ‚aÛÝÕnda olußtuklarÝ dŸßŸnŸlmektedir. †•ker VadisiÕnde ikinci ve kÝsmen Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre moren karmaßÝÛÝnÝ Ÿzerler durumda bulunan kaya buzullarÝ buzul •evresi (periglacial) ortamlarÝn tipik gšstergelerindendir. Capps (1910)ÕÝn ilk defa kaya buzulu deyimini kullanmasÝndan sonra kapsamlÝ bir •alÝßma ile AlaskaÕda 200Õden fazla kaya buzulunu inceleyen Wahrhaftig ve Cox (1959), bunlarÝ Òvadi yama•larÝnÝn eteklerinde veya kŸ•Ÿk buzullarÝn šnŸnde gelißmiß, dil veya yayvan ßekilli, kšßeli ve kštŸ boylanmÝß malzemeden olußan kŸtlelerÓ olarak tanÝmlamÝßlardÝr. Kaya buzullarÝnÝn kškeni ve dinamiÛi ile ilgilenen araßtÝrmacÝlarÝn bir kÝsmÝ, kaya buzullarÝnÝn periglasiyal kškenli oluÛunu ve yama• dškŸntŸlerini olußturan malzemeler arasÝndaki boßluklarÝ dolduran suyun donmasÝ ve •šzŸlmesi esnasÝnda gelißen kuvvetlerin bu kŸtleyi (Òbirincil kaya buzullarÝÓ, Corte, 1976) aßaÛÝya doÛru yavaß bir ßekilde hareket ettirdiklerini šne sŸrmektedirler (Wahrhaftig ve Cox, 1959; Blagbrough ve Farkas, 1968; Haeberli, 1985; Barsch, 1992). Bir diÛer gurup araßtÝrmacÝ ise, kaya buzullarÝnÝn olußumunu kŸ•Ÿk buzullarÝn yŸzeyine yama•lardan dškŸlen malzemenin buzulun erimesi sonucu birikmesine (Òikincil kaya buzullarÝÓ, Corte, 1976) baÛlamaktadÝr (Richmond, 1952; Humlum, 1988). Bu •alÝßma kapsamÝnda †•ker VadisiÕnde gšzlemlenen kaya buzullarÝnÝn daha ziyade periglasyal kškenli, yani birincil kaya buzulu olduklarÝ dŸßŸnŸlmektedir. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda 20. yŸzyÝlÝn baßÝndan beri gŸncel buzula ait toplanan veriler buzul dilinin 1902 yÝlÝndaki 3100 m kotundan gŸnŸmŸzde 3420 mÕye •ekildiÛini gšstermektedir. 1950 yÝlÝnda ortalama geri •ekilme hÝzÝ 3 m/yÝl iken (Erin•, 1952a), gŸnŸmŸzde bunun daha da artarak, ortalama 4 m/yÝlÕa •ÝktÝÛÝ gšrŸlmektedir. Erin• (1951)Õe gšre bu buzul Pleyistosen buzullaßmasÝnÝn bir devamÝ olmayÝp, gŸnŸmŸzden 4-6 bin yÝl šnce gelißmiß sÝcak ve kurak Üklim OptimumuÕnda tamamen erimiß veya firn seviyesine inmißtir. BŸyŸk olasÝlÝkla KŸ•Ÿk Buzul ‚aÛÝÕnda gelißmiß bu buzulun ŸrŸnleri olan erime moren- SarÝkaya vd. leri ise bu •alÝßma kapsamÝnda 3. evre morenleri baßlÝÛÝ altÝnda toplanmÝßlardÝr. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda ger•ekleßtirilen bu •alÝßma sonucunda buzullarÝn zaman ve mekan i•erisindeki baÛÝl konumlarÝ saptanabilmiß ve •škelttikleri morenlerin •eßitli šzellikleri ortaya konulabilmißtir. Kozmojenik yaß tayini i•in sistematik olarak toplanan šrneklerden alÝnacak sonu•lar sadece ErciyesÕin deÛil, TŸrkiyeÕnin Ge• KuvaternerÕdeki iklim deÛißikliklerinin boyutunun ve zamanlamasÝnÝn anlaßÝlabilmesine de šnemli katkÝlar saÛlacayaktÝr. KATKI BELÜRTME Bu makale, birinci yazar M. Akif SarÝkayaÕnÝn halen devam etmekte olan ve T†BÜTAK-MŸnir Birsel VakfÝ bursu ile kÝsmen desteklenen doktora •alÝßmasÝnÝn bir bšlŸmŸnŸ i•ermektedir. ‚alÝßmalar, T†BÜTAK ile NSF (National Science Foundation) tarafÝndan desteklenen ÒMagnitude of Quaternary Glaciers and Glaciations from Low to High Latitudes: Global or Local Dominant Controlling FactorsÓ isimli 101Y002 NoÕlu projenin maddi desteÛi ile yŸrŸtŸlmŸßtŸr. Yazarlar, arazi •alÝßmalarÝnda kendilerine eßlik eden Hacettepe †niversitesiÕnden Dr. Erdal Þen ve YŸksek MŸh. BŸlent AkÝlÕa, ErciyesÕin sayÝsallaßtÝrÝlmÝß haritasÝnÝ saÛlayan Dr. Biltan KŸrk•ŸoÛluÕna ve makalenin volkanizmasÝ ile ilgili olarak gšrŸßlerinden yararlanÝlan Prof. Dr. Erkan AydarÕa teßekkŸrlerini sunarlar. Yazarlar, ayrÝca bu •alÝßmanÝn gelißmesinde deÛerli gšrŸßlerinden yararlanÝlan Prof. Dr. OÛuz Erol ve Prof. Dr. Nizamettin KazancÝÕya teßekkŸr ederler. KAYNAKLAR AyrancÝ, B., 1991. The magnificent volcano of Central Anatolia; Mt. Erciyes near Kayseri. 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Geological Society of America Bulletin, 70, 383-436. 42 APPENDIX B COLD AND WET LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM ON MOUNT SANDIRAS, SW TURKEY, INFERRED FROM COSMOGENIC DATING AND GLACIER MODELING Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya1, Marek Zreda1, Attila Çiner2, Chris Zweck1 1 Hydrology and Water Resources Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA 2 Geological Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey [Quaternary Science Reviews, 27 (7-8) (2008) 769-780] DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.01.002 43 ELSEVIER LICENSE TERMS AND CONDITIONS Mar 09, 2009 This is a License Agreement between Mehmet A Sarikaya ("You") and Elsevier ("Elsevier") provided by Copyright Clearance Center ("CCC"). The license consists of your order details, the terms and conditions provided by Elsevier, and the payment terms and conditions. All payments must be made in full to CCC. For payment instructions, please see information listed at the bottom of this form. 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Questions? customercare@copyright.com or +1-877-622-5543 (toll free in the US) or +1-978-646-2777. 46 ARTICLE IN PRESS 47 Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769–780 Cold and wet Last Glacial Maximum on Mount Sandıras, SW Turkey, inferred from cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling Mehmet Akif Sarıkayaa,, Marek Zredaa, Attila C - inerb, Chris Zwecka a Hydrology and Water Resources Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA b Geological Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey Received 3 July 2007; received in revised form 18 December 2007; accepted 3 January 2008 Abstract In situ cosmogenic 36Cl was measured in boulders from moraines on Mount Sandıras (37.11N, 28.81E, 2295 m), the southwestern most previously glaciated mountain in Turkey. Valleys on the north side of the mountain were filled with 1.5 km long glaciers that terminated at an altitude of 1900 m. The glacial activity on Mount Sandıras correlates with the broadly defined Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The maximum glaciation occurred approximately 20.471.3 ka (1s; 1 ka ¼ 1000 calendar years) ago, when glaciers started retreating and the most extensive moraines were deposited. The glaciers readvanced and retreated by 19.671.6 ka ago, and then again by 16.270.5 ka. Using the glacier modeling and the paleoclimate proxies from the Eastern Mediterranean, we estimated that if temperatures during LGM were 8.5–11.5 1C lower than modern, precipitation was up to 1.9 times more than that of today. Thus, the local LGM climate was cold and wet which is at odds with the conventional view of the LGM as being cold and dry in the region. r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The evidence of past glacial activities in mountain settings provides direct information of the magnitude and frequency of past climate changes. Because of the unique location of Turkey in the transition zone between the temperate Mediterranean climates influenced by North Atlantic cyclones (Macklin et al., 2002) and the subtropical high pressure climatic zone (la Fontaine et al., 1990), the paleoclimate of Turkey is highly sensitive to climatic perturbations that affect the position and/or intensity of the westerly storm tracks that carry moisture from the North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea. Thus, studying the timing and extent of past glacial activity as a proxy of past climates on Turkey can reveal valuable information on Late Quaternary climate changes. Several mountain ranges in Turkey supported glaciers during the Late Quaternary (Erinc- , 1952; Messerli, 1967; Birman, 1968; Kurter and Sungur, 1980; C - iner, 2004; Akc- ar et al., 2007). Among these, the Taurus Mountain Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 520 621 4072; fax: +1 520 621 1422. E-mail address: sarikaya@email.arizona.edu (M.A. Sarıkaya). 0277-3791/$ - see front matter r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.01.002 Range, in south Anatolia, has two-thirds of the previously glaciated mountains in the country. On the far east (Fig. 1), Mount Cilo (4135 m) has the largest glaciated area in Turkey, including ice caps and valley glaciers up to 4 km long (Kurter, 1991). In the central Taurus, Mount Aladağlar (3756 m) has a well-preserved moraine record of extensive Early Holocene glaciers (Klimchouk et al., 2006; Zreda et al., 2006). While much lower than their eastern counterparts, the western Taurides also have several mountains with evidence of Pleistocene glaciers. Mount Dedegöl (2990 m, Zahno et al., 2007), Beydağ (3086 m, Messerli, 1967), Akdağ (3016 m, Onde, 1952) and Sandıras (2295 m, de Planhol, 1953; Doğu, 1993) (Fig. 1) show several cirques and well-preserved glacier related landforms especially on their north and northeast facing slopes. Today, due to the increasing effect of continentality from west to east in Anatolia, western mountains experience wetter and warmer climate than the eastern mountains. Today, active glaciers are present only in central and eastern mountains, and their sizes are increasing from west to east. Additionally, Late Pleistocene equilibrium line altitude (ELA) estimates in Turkey support this continental effect (Messerli, 1967; Erinc- , ARTICLE IN PRESS M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769–780 48 Fig. 1. Digital elevation model of Turkey and locations of places discussed in the text. 1971, 1978; Atalay, 1987). During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 21,000 calendar years ago), western Anatolian mountains had ELAs as low as 2000–2400 m while eastern mountains had ELAs about 3000–3200 m. Glacial deposits in all these mountains have been studied to some degree, but few of them have been dated numerically. Most of the age estimates for glacial deposits are based on relative dating techniques, including stratigraphic relationships, degree of weathering and soil development (de Planhol, 1953; Birman, 1968; Doğu, 1993). Generally, previous studies assigned Late Pleistocene to the age of glaciation in the southwest Taurus Mountains (de Planhol, 1953; Doğu, 1993; C - iner, 2004 and references therein). The glacial landforms on Mount Sandıras were mapped and their lithostratigraphy described in detail by de Planhol (1953) and Doğu (1993). However, because these glacial deposits have not been dated numerically, the exact timing of glaciations is unknown, which precludes paleoclimatic interpretation based on the glacial records. In this study, we examined the timing (from the age of landforms) and magnitude (from the position of ice margins) of paleoclimatic changes on Mount Sandıras by using the cosmogenic 36Cl exposure dating method. We modeled the glacier response to climatic changes using a glacier model to reconstruct temperature and precipitation at the time of glaciation. Finally, we compared our paleoclimatic findings with other Late Quaternary climate proxies from the Eastern Mediterranean region. 2. Physical setting and climate Mount Sandıras (37.11N, 28.81E, 2295 m above mean sea level), also known as C - ic- ekbaba (Flower father, in Turkish), Sandras or Gölgeli Dağları (Shaded Mountains), is the southwestern most previously glaciated mountain in the Anatolian Peninsula (Fig. 1). The mountain is located about 40 km from the Mediterranean coast. The land elevation increases rapidly towards inland creating a natural climatic barrier between the coastal area and the interior. The summit of Mount Sandıras is a plateau approximately 1 km2 in area, sloping to the southeast and ranging in elevation from 2200 to 2295 m (Fig. 2). The geological formation exposed on the mountain is the upper part of the Lycian Allochthons, called Lycian Peridotite Thrust Sheet (Collins and Robertson, 1998). It consists predominantly of serpentinized harzburgite, with minor pyroxenite, pediform dunite and chromitite (Kaaden, 1959; de Graciansky, 1967; Engin and Hirst, 1970; Collins, 1997). Present climate in southwest Turkey is characterized by dry/hot summers and wet/temperate winters (Kendrew, 1961). Average summer temperature (June, July and August; JJA) on the southwest Mediterranean coast of Turkey is about 26 1C (calculated from long-term weather stations data downloaded from Global Historical Climatology Network, version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/ climate/ghcn-monthly/index.php, accessed in May 2007), and average winter temperature (December, January and February; DJF) is about 10 1C. Winters are moderately wet. Sixty percent of average 0.9 m annual precipitation falls in winter months (DJF) due to the penetration of depressions that brings moisture from either the Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean Sea (Stevens et al., 2001). These storm tracks tend to move eastward along the Mediterranean (Kendrew, 1961; Wigley and Farmer, 1982) and bring most of the precipitation in the winter. Summers are dry. Only 2% of annual precipitation falls in summer months (JJA) due to the persistent northerly winds (Kendrew, 1961). ARTICLE IN PRESS M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769 –780 49 Fig. 2. Glacial features of Mount Sandıras with sample locations and the central ice flow line (dashed line between X and Y) along which the glacier was modeled. 3. Evidence of glacial action on Mount Sandıras Philippson (1915), cited by Doğu (1993), first described evidence of former glaciations on Mount Sandıras. de Planhol (1953) suggested that an ice cap covered the flat top of the mountain during the Würm glacial age and the tongues of that ice cap reached an altitude of 1900 m on the north side. He calculated the Würm glaciation snow line (similar to ELA) to be at 2000–2050 m and proposed that this snow line lower than that on other mountains in southwestern Turkey is due to the tectonic lowering of Sandıras that occurred after the glaciation. However, the position of river terraces on the southern slopes of the mountain suggests at least 20–30 m of uplift (Pons and Edelman, 1963; Doğu, 1986, 1994), invalidating the idea of de Planhol (1953). Messerli (1967) rejected the tectonic hypothesis of de Planhol (1953), and proposed that the low ELA was due to the local climatic conditions that occurred during the Würm glacial age and due to the proximity of Mount Sandıras to the source of moisture in the adjacent sea. He described glacial evidence from nearby Akdağ and Beydağ (Fig. 1), and calculated the local Würm snow line on these mountains to be 2500–2600 m. Doğu (1993) mapped and described glacial deposits from the summit plateau and from the valleys on the northern and northeastern flanks of the mountain. He found that the northern valleys were glaciated during two epochs of the Würm glaciation. During the first epoch, the plateau was covered by an ice cap whose outlet glaciers reached lower elevations via northern valleys. During the second epoch, the ice cap did not exist and only small valley glaciers existed in the northern valleys. According to de Planhol (1953) and Doğu (1993), the high plateau above 2200 m (Fig. 2) is a remnant of an old erosional level (peneplane) which was modified by an ice cap during the Late Pleistocene. But our own field work revealed no clear evidence of glacial action on the plateau. It is likely that the combination of southern exposure, flat topography and strong winds prevented accumulation of snow and ice even during glacial times. The northern valleys (the Kartal Lake Valley, the Middle Valley and the Northwest Valley, Fig. 2) contain the most important glacial features on the Mount Sandıras. Kartal Lake Valley, a typical U-shaped glacial valley, 400–550 m wide, extends 1.5 km down from the plateau at an altitude of 2220 m to the lowest moraine below Kartal Lake at about 1900 m (Fig. 2). The highest part of the valley is ARTICLE IN PRESS M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769–780 occupied by a large glacial cirque with nearly vertical walls that are 100 m high. Doğu (1993) interpreted this sharp edge as evidence of a two-stage glaciation, but this type of sharp morphology is a characteristic of cirques (Ehlers, 1996) and is not a proof of multiple glaciations. The Kartal Lake Valley continues with two consecutive steps at around 2090 and 2000 m. In the lower part of the valley, there are several terminal and lateral moraines between 1900 and 2000 m. The moraines of Kartal Lake Valley have many crests (marked in Fig. 2) separated by depressions several meters deep, indicating small fluctuations of the ice margin. The stratigraphic positions of the moraine crests and age results (Section 5.1) suggest that at least two separate sets of moraine exist in the Kartal Lake valley. The older moraines (A1) are the farthest crests below the lake, and the younger ones (A2) are the moraines closest to the lake (Fig. 2). Several left lateral moraine crests also exist on the northwest of the lake, in continuation with the terminal moraines A1 and A2. On the right side of the valley, there are no remnants of glacial deposits other than small patches of till on the bedrock. The Northwest Valley (Fig. 2) starts east of C - ıralıoluk Tepe (2217 m) and continues north–northwest from about 2210 m to 1900 m. The cirque area is not as well developed as that in the Kartal Lake Valley, but can be outlined by steep bedrock walls. The valley has two well-preserved loops of terminal and lateral moraines, B1 and B2, at elevations of about 1900 and 1930 m, respectively. These moraines are dissected by melt water and small streams. The outer part of the lower terminal moraine (B1) has a very fresh surface and steep slope (601) on the down valley side, indicating that the outer part of B1 was removed recently. On the topographic maps from 1950s, the outer part of the crest still existed, but our GPS surveys and field observations indicate that this part is missing. This shows that at least part of the moraine is missing, and suggests that if older moraines ever existed in the valleys, they might have been obliterated. The Middle Valley (Fig. 2) has numerous crescent-like nested crests separated from each other by small depressions. These hummocky moraines of the Middle Valley start at an elevation of about 2100 m and continue to about 1950 m. Boulders here are generally small and not well preserved. Because of the lack of suitable boulder to date by cosmogenic methods, we did not collect any sample from this valley. 4. Methods 4.1. Cosmogenic 36 Cl dating of moraines 4.1.1. Determination of 36Cl ages We used the cosmogenic 36Cl method (Davis and Schaeffer, 1955; Phillips et al., 1986; Zreda and Phillips, 2000) to determine surface exposure ages of boulders from moraines associated with the Sandıras glaciation. Chlorine 36 is produced in rocks by collisions of cosmic-ray 50 neutrons and muons with atoms of Cl, Ca and K (Zreda et al., 1991). Once produced, it remains in place and accumulates continuously with time (Zreda and Phillips, 2000). Because the production rates of 36Cl from the three target elements are known, at least in principle (Zreda et al., 1991; Phillips et al., 1996, 2001; Stone et al., 1996, 1998; Swanson and Caffee, 2001; Zweck et al., 2006), measured concentrations of 36Cl in rocks can be used to determine how long these rocks have been exposed to cosmic radiation. In situ accumulation of various cosmogenic nuclides, including 36Cl, has been used to develop glacial chronologies in many areas (Zreda et al., 1999; Owen et al., 2001, 2002; Mackintosh et al., 2006; Principato et al., 2006; Akc- ar et al., 2007) and the approach is considered reliable. The inventory of cosmogenic nuclide in the dated material depends on the geographic location of the sample (latitude, longitude and elevation) as well as amount of shielding of the sample by surrounding topography and snow from exposure to cosmic rays, the concentration of the target elements and assumed elemental production rates. The location dependence of 36Cl production was calculated using Desilets and Zreda (2003) and Desilets et al. (2006a). Topographic shielding corrections were made by measuring the inclination to the horizon of the sample locations at 451 azimuthal increments using a handheld clinometer and applying the method given in Gosse and Phillips (2001, pp. 1520–1522). Snow corrections were made by estimating the average annual snow thickness on sample sites using the long-term precipitation and temperature data from nearby weather stations and interpolating them to Mount Sandıras by the method described in Section 4.2. The shielding correction factors are given in Table 1. Cosmogenic 36Cl surface exposure ages were calculated using a new approach that is being implemented in the ACE (Age Calculation Engine) software (Anderson et al., 2007), previously known as iCronus (Zweck et al., 2006), using the following production rates: 71.773.2 atoms 36Cl (g Ca)1 yr1, 15578.0 atoms 36Cl (g K)1 yr1 and 678743 fast neutrons (g air)1 yr1. These rates are based on the calibration data set of Phillips et al. (1996). They have been scaled to sea level (atmospheric pressure 1033 g cm2) and high geomagnetic latitude (geomagnetic cutoff rigidity o2 GV) using Desilets and Zreda (2003) and Desilets et al. (2006a), and include necessary corrections for secular changes in paleomagnetic intensity (Guyodo and Valet, 1999; Yang et al., 2000), changes in geomagnetic pole position (Ohno and Hamano, 1992) and eustatic changes in seal level (Fairbanks, 1989). As an example, time variation of cosmogenic 36Cl production rate for sample SA02-609 is given in Fig. 3 along with its time averaged rate. Other 36Cl production rate estimates are also available (Stone et al., 1996, 1998; Swanson and Caffee, 2001), which would result in different age estimates for the samples. However, we prefer to use the production rates based on the data set of Phillips et al. (1996) because (a) in this data set, 36Cl production rates have been B1 B1 B2 B2 B2 Northwest Valley SA05-616 SA05-616-A SA05-613a SA05-617 SA05-617-A 1934 1934 1934 1907 1907 1949 1914 1914 1910 1899 1902 1902 Elev. (m) 37.101 37.100 37.100 37.103 37.103 37.100 37.100 37.100 37.099 37.100 37.100 37.100 Lat. (1N) 28.834 28.837 28.837 28.837 28.837 28.849 28.852 28.852 28.852 29.854 28.853 28.853 Long. (1E) 0.9627 0.9789 0.9789 0.9886 0.9886 0.9898 0.9798 0.9789 0.9895 0.9898 0.9698 0.9898 Shielding correctionb 2 3 3 1 1 2 3 3 1.5 4 2 3 Sample thickness (cm) 6.370.4 34.171.6 37.271.6 21.471.8 26.270.9 67.9711.5 34.571.4 35.071.4 63.072.3 30.674.6 28.871.5 39.174.0 36 ClTotal (104 atoms g1) 12.4 21.2 23.7 14.7 15.5 40.4 17.9 16.1 18.9 14.2 15.0 19.5 5.170.3 16.470.8 16.070.7 14.871.2 17.270.6 17.272.9 19.270.8 21.970.9 34.771.3 22.173.3 19.671.0 20.672.1 Boulder aged (ka) > ; 9 > = ) > > ; 9 > > = > ; 9 > = 16.270.5 (70.8) 16.571.1 (71.3) 19.671.6 (71.8) 20.471.3 (71.6) Moraine agee (ka) Cl ages of boulders with moraine ages of Sandıras glaciations 36 Production ratec (atoms g1 yr1) Cl inventories, time averaged total production rates and 36 b Samples that are not included in the moraine age calculations. The product of topographic and snow correction factors. c Time averaged total production rate of 36Cl at the surface of the boulder. d Uncertainties are based on analytical errors and given in 1sd (standard deviation) level. Replicates were integrally averaged before adding to the moraine age calculations. e Uncertainties are based on boulder-to-boulder variability and given in 1sem (standard error of the mean) level. Total errors which also include uncertainties on production rates of 36Cl are given in parentheses. a A2 A2 A2 A2 A1 A1 A1 Kartal Lake Valley SA02-609 SA02-610 SA02-611 SA02-612 SA05-618 SA05-618-A SA05-619a Moraine Sample Table 1 Locations, shielding correction factors, sample thicknesses, measured total M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769 –780 ARTICLE IN PRESS 51 ARTICLE IN PRESS M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769–780 Production rate of 36Cl, atoms g-1 yr -1 18 16 14 12 10 8 0 5 10 15 20 Age, ka Fig. 3. Cosmogenic 36Cl production rate variation of sample SA02-609 for 22.1 ka. The variations about the mean of 14.2 (horizontal line) are due to the combination of changes in the geomagnetic intensity and sea level (gradually decreasing long term change) and magnetic pole position (short term fluctuations). determined using many samples of different ages and from different localities while other production rates are based on fewer samples and/or fewer localities; (b) 36Cl production rates from all three primary target (Ca, K and Cl) have been calculated simultaneously and (c) computational procedures used for the calibration samples and for our samples in this research were identical, which assures compatibility of all results. 4.1.2. Collection, preparation and analysis of samples We collected samples for cosmogenic 36Cl dating from the top few centimeters of boulders using a hammer and chisel. Boulders were chosen based on their preservation, size, appearance and position on the landform. We sampled the boulders on the crests of the moraines and restricted sampling to large (usually X1 m in diameter) boulders that have a strong root in the moraine matrix. The aim of this sampling strategy was to minimize potential effects of post-depositional complications, such as boulder rolling or matrix erosion and gradual exposure of boulders. We also avoided sampling surfaces with evidence of spalling, weathering and other visible signs of surface modification. In the field, we measured the thickness of each sample (given in Table 1) to calculate the depth-integrated production rates. Samples were crushed and sieved to separate the 0.25–1.0 mm size fraction, which was leached with 5% HNO3 overnight and rinsed in deionized water to remove atmospheric 36Cl. Chlorine was liberated from silicate matrix using high pressure acid digestion bombs (Almasi, 2001; Desilets et al., 2006b), precipitated as AgCl, purified of sulfur (36S is an isobar of 36Cl and interferes with the measurement of 36Cl), and the 36Cl/Cl was measured with accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at PRIME Lab, 52 Purdue University, Indiana, USA. Samples SA05-618-A, 616-A and 617-A (Table 1) which are replicates of SA05618, 616 and 617, respectively, were prepared in open vessels (Desilets et al., 2006b) to compare with samples prepared in high pressure acid digestion bombs. Total Cl was estimated using the ion specific electrode method (Aruscavage and Campbell, 1983; Elsheimer, 1987) at the University of Arizona, and its precise determination was made from measurement of 37Cl/35Cl on spiked samples (Desilets et al., 2006b) after the AMS measurement of 36Cl/Cl. Major and trace elements that have high thermal neutron cross-sections (B, Sm, Gd and others) compete with 35Cl for thermal neutrons and must be taken into account when calculating cosmogenic production rates. Major elements were measured with inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AE), selected trace elements were measured with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and boron was measured with prompt gamma-neutron activation analysis (PGNAA), all at Activation Laboratories Inc., Ont., Canada (Table 2). 4.2. Glacier modeling To investigate the response of Mount Sandıras glaciers to climate change, we used a one-dimensional ice flow model (Paterson, 1994; Haeberli, 1996) to simulate changes in ice extent. The model allows the user to recreate a valley glacier along an ice flow line as a function of prescribed surface air temperature and precipitation. Starting from the present day valley topography and time invariant mass balance patterns, the model builds up a glacier until a steady-state condition (equilibrium) is reached. The model calculates the ice mass balance using the accumulation of ice predicted by snowfall modeled as precipitation occurring below zero degrees and ablation of ice by using positive degree day factors, which assume a correlation between the sum of positive air temperatures and the amount of ablation of ice (Braithwaite, 1995). Our model assumes no basal sliding and the ice is assumed to be isothermal. Initially, we applied the glacier model to both the Kartal Lake Valley and the Northwest Valley. The results showed no significant difference in the response to climatic signal, which means that the valleys have similar responses to climate change. We limited further modeling to the Kartal Lake Valley because the most extensive and best preserved moraines are in this valley, the source area (cirque) is well developed, and our cosmogenic ages show at least two glacial advances (Section 5.1). The required inputs for the glacier model are: (1) the surface topography; (2) the spatial distribution of the modern day monthly mean temperatures and (3) the precipitation rates along the glaciated valley. Surface topography was constructed from 1/25,000 scale topographic map along the ARTICLE IN PRESS 141712 16775 4873 19779 18678 89.1 92.1 77.3 102.3 117.8 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 0.1 0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 7.9 7.9 10.5 5.6 5.6 99.8 99.8 100.0 99.9 99.9 6.26 6.26 2.96 4.68 4.68 7.88 7.88 8.32 8.31 8.31 0.102 0.102 0.114 0.114 0.114 0.006 0.006 0.012 0.033 0.033 0.71 0.71 0.93 1.93 1.93 0.04 0.04 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 41.40 41.40 43.08 41.93 41.93 Loss on ignition. a 42.46 42.46 43.62 40.88 40.88 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.06 Northwest Valley SA05-616 SA05-616-A SA05-613 SA05-617 SA05-617-A 0.94 0.94 0.96 1.94 1.94 374756 259714 269727 180729 231710 274711 408715 48.2 64.9 84.7 220.0 87.3 74.7 90.9 0 0 0 0 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 0.7 0.7 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.1 o0.5 o0.5 3.3 1.4 5.9 5.9 7.3 99.9 99.1 98.8 98.8 99.0 99.0 99.9 2.66 4.40 4.55 3.69 o0.01 o0.01 5.03 8.34 8.24 7.95 8.70 8.69 8.69 8.36 0.116 0.108 0.111 0.104 0.121 0.121 0.115 0.029 0.026 0.020 0.023 0.029 0.029 0.022 2.12 1.85 1.95 1.61 1.41 1.41 1.60 0.09 0.02 0.03 o0.01 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 o0.01 45.02 42.56 42.86 43.43 43.67 43.67 41.98 2.20 1.93 2.17 1.74 1.88 1.88 1.61 39.05 39.78 38.91 39.01 43.12 43.12 41.12 Kartal Lake Valley SA02-609 0.23 SA02-610 0.13 SA02-611 0.20 SA02-612 0.49 SA05-618 0.05 SA05-618-A 0.05 SA05-619 0.05 SiO2 % 0.01 Al2O3 % 0.01 MgO % 0.01 Na2O % 0.01 Element Units Detection limit Table 2 Analytical results of samples from Mount Sandıras P2O5 % 0.01 K2O % 0.01 CaO % 0.01 TiO2 % 0.001 MnO % 0.001 Fe2O3 % 0.01 LOIa % 0.01 Total % B ppm 0.5 Sm ppm 0.1 Gd ppm 0.1 U ppm 0.1 Th ppm 0.1 Cl ppm 36 Cl/(1015 Cl) M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769 –780 53 inferred central ice flow line of the Kartal Lake glacier (Fig. 2). Our model uses the flow line starting at the elevation of 2230 m on the rim of the plateau and continues down to 1778 m, which is 122 m below the lowest moraine in the Kartal Lake Valley. The total length of the flow line in the model is 2 km, well in excess of the distance to the outermost moraines, which are situated 1.5 km away from the plateau rim. Long term monthly mean temperature and precipitation data from the Global Historical Climatology Network (version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/ghcnmonthly/index.php, accessed in May 2007) was used. Because of the sharp gradient of continentality over the region (Kurupınar, 1995; Kadıoğlu, 2000; Ünal et al., 2003), we used only those weather stations that are within 200 km radius of Mount Sandıras to project monthly temperature and precipitation on the mountain. We restricted to use of weather station data that have at least 30 years of coverage. First, for each month, weather station temperature was transferred to sea level using the modern air temperature lapse rate calculated from the radiosonde data (http://raob.fsl.noaa.gov/, accessed in May 2007) at Isparta station (165 km northeast of Sandıras, Fig. 1). Then, the data were kriged using the ArcGIS software (version 9.1). The surface temperatures along the Kartal Lake Valley were then recalculated using the same lapse rates for each month from the interpolated values. Precipitation rates on Mount Sandıras were calculated by interpolation of the same weather station data using the same kriging method over the region. In the model, a 0 1C cutoff temperature is assumed to calculate the fraction of total precipitation in the valley that falls as snow. If the air temperature is below or equal to 0 1C, all precipitation is assumed to be snow, above that threshold—rain. The total annual accumulation of snow is determined using projected monthly precipitation rates and temperatures. Yearly ablation is calculated by determining the spatial distribution of positive degree days sums (Braithwaite, 1995) in the valley. Degree day factors of 3 mm day1 1C1 (water equivalent) for snow and 8 mm day1 1C1 for ice (Braithwaite and Zhang, 2000) are assumed, as is a standard deviation of 3.3 1C for the monthly mean surface temperature, which is based on the Isparta weather station data. Finally, glacier mass balance is calculated as snow accumulation minus ablation and the ELA is defined as the elevation at which the computed mass balance is zero. We have tested the model results by calculating the paleo-ELA of LGM glaciers using different methods. Our model yielded a zero mass balance at 1998 m for the conditions which Kartal Lake moraines deposited. The accumulation area ratio (AAR) method (Porter, 1975), with the AAR value of 0.6 (Nesje and Dahl, 2000) and the reconstructed area of an LGM glacier of 0.77 km2, gave a comparable value of 1975 m. Both figures are consistent with the calculations made by de Planhol (1953) and Doğu (1993). ARTICLE IN PRESS M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769–780 5. Results 5.1. Cosmogenic 36 Cl exposure ages We dated six boulders from the Kartal Lake Valley and three from the Northwest Valley (Fig. 2; Table 1). All boulder ages include correction for thickness and shielding by surrounding topography and snow. The uncertainties quoted for the boulder ages were calculated by propagation of analytical errors on 36Cl/Cl and on Cl (both reported by the AMS laboratory) and assuming a 20% uncertainty on the calculated nucleogenic component. Boulder age uncertainties are based only on analytical errors and given at the 1sd (standard deviation) level. Moraine ages are calculated as weighted mean of boulder ages, and are given at the 1sem (standard error of the mean) level. Total errors, reported in Table 1, include both analytical errors and uncertainties on production rates of 36Cl. With the exception of one older outlier, the boulders from Kartal Lake moraines have ages ranging from 17.272.9 ka to 22.173.3 ka (Table 1). Samples SA02609, 610 and 611 are from moraine A1, and have a weighted mean age of 20.471.3 ka. Samples SA02-612, SA05-618, 618-A and 619 are from moraine A2 in the same valley. Sample 619 gave an age of 34.771.3 ka. Because it is older than all other samples by more than six standard deviations, we consider it an older outlier, probably containing 36Cl inherited from episodes of previous exposure to cosmic radiation. This sample was excluded from further consideration. Samples 618-A is the open vessel replicate of sample 618. For further calculations, replicates are internally weighted averaged first and this average added to the moraine age calculations. Therefore, samples 612 and 618 gave ages of 17.272.9 ka and 20.671.3 ka, and the age of moraine A2 is calculated as 19.671.6 ka. Although ages of moraine A1 and A2 overlap at the 1-sigma level, the stratigraphic positions of these moraines suggest that the former indicates the maximum position of the glaciers, and the latter records a readvance. Samples SA05-616 and its replicate 616-A, from the outer ridge of terminal moraine B1 in the Northwest Valley, yielded ages of 14.871.2 ka and 17.270.6 ka, respectively, and sample SA05-617 and 617-A, from the outer ridge of terminal moraine B2, yielded ages of 16.470.8 ka and 16.070.7 ka (Table 1). Thus, B1 and B2 moraine ages are 16.571.1 ka and 16.270.5 ka, respectively. Sample SA05-613, from the innermost moraine gave a young age of 5.170.3 ka. This boulder is small (70 50 cm) and short (height of 40 cm), and its young age could be due to post-depositional modification that affected its exposure to cosmic radiation. However, given the position of the sample on the innermost moraine crest (Fig. 2), it is also possible that the age is real, and that there was a glacial advance in the Middle Holocene. Additional samples are needed to test this hypothesis. For the purposes of this paper, which concentrates on the LGM, this sample is excluded from further consideration. 54 The cosmogenic 36Cl ages suggest that the glaciers started retreating from their maximum positions by 20.47 1.3 ka ago. Two later readvances ended 19.671.6 ka ago in the Kartal Lake Valley and 16.270.5 ka ago in the Northwest Valley. These results agree with other glacial records in the Mediterranean area (Hughes et al., 2006a), and particularly with the recent glacial geological studies in Turkey (Akc- ar et al., 2007; Zahno et al., 2007) that showed LGM ages of recent glacial deposits. The advance of glaciers in the Kac- kar Mountains, near the Black Sea, began at least 26.071.2 ka ago and continued until 18.370.9 ka (Akc- ar et al., 2007). Similar results were reported from Dedegöl Mountains, southwest Turkey by Zahno et al. (2007) who measured cosmogenic 10Be ages of moraines and claimed that LGM glaciation started 26 ka ago and continued until 19 ka ago. Thus, all three cosmogenic records indicate maximum glacial activity during the LGM and deglaciation shortly thereafter. 5.2. Paleoclimatic interpretation Modeled glacier lengths as a function of temperature and precipitation changes from modern conditions are plotted in Fig. 4. The contours show how the length of glacier in the Kartal Lake Valley varies with climate. The zero Fig. 4. Modeled length of the Kartal Lake Valley glacier (solid line) as a function of temperature and precipitation changes from those of today (full circle). As a comparison 0 km line which represents glacier inception and 0.5, 1 and 2 km lines shown (dashed lines). Thick solid and corresponding horizontal and vertical gray lines are suggested possible ranges of temperature and precipitation changes during LGM. Empty circles are those conditions suggested by proxy data (a: Bar-Matthews et al., 1997, b: Hughes et al., 2003, c: Emeis et al., 1998, 2000; Kallel et al., 2000, d: McGarry et al., 2004, e: corresponds to threshold temperature depression to sustain glacier by same amount of moisture level as today (proposed by this study), f: Jones et al., 2007). ARTICLE IN PRESS M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769 –780 kilometer line represents the threshold values for glaciation; no glaciers can exist to the left and below this line. The model results show that under the modern temperature and precipitation conditions glaciers will not form on the mountain, which is consistent with field observations. Possible combinations of climatic conditions that produced the Kartal Lake Valley glacier are along the line labeled 1.5 km. They encompass wide ranges of temperature and precipitation, including those that are highly unlikely (e.g., extremely high precipitation rates would have to accompany moderate decreases of temperature). Glacier modeling shows that a cooling of about 11.5 1C is needed if we assume the same precipitation rate as today, less than 11.5 1C of cooling would require greater precipitation than modern (wetter conditions), and greater temperature depressions would require less than modern precipitation (drier conditions) to sustain glaciers on Mount Sandıras. In order to reduce these possible ranges, we employed additional information from other paleoclimate proxy data around the region, especially paleotemperature estimates since they are easier than the prediction of paleoprecipitation. Bar-Matthews et al. (1997) reconstructed the eastern Mediterranean paleoclimate during the past 25 ka using a high resolution petrographic, stable isotopic, and age study of speleothems from the Soreq Cave, Israel (Fig. 1 for location). They showed that during the period from 25 ka ago to 17 ka ago the eastern coast of the Levantine Basin was characterized by air temperatures about 6 1C lower than today and annual precipitation was 20–50% lower than today. Mean annual temperatures in Jerusalem and in Köyceğiz (15 km southwest of Mount Sandıras) are 17.0 and 18.3 1C, respectively. Although the precipitation rates of the two regions are different (the Israeli coast is drier than the southwest coast of Turkey), their seasonal variations are similar (Stevens et al., 2001). In Jerusalem, 67% of precipitation falls in the winter, from December to February, and in Köyceğiz the corresponding value is 57%. Furthermore, precipitation sources for these two regions are the Mediterranean Sea (Kendrew, 1961; Wigley and Farmer, 1982; Stevens et al., 2001). Vaks et al. (2006) studied d18O in speleothems from four caves of the Northern Negev Desert and found that during the last 200 ka the source of rainfall in northern Negev area was the Eastern Mediterranean. Because today the area of the Soreq Cave has similar climate to that of the southwestern Turkey, it is likely that this temperature shift is representative of the wider region, and can be applied to constrain the LGM temperature at Sandıras. For the first approximation, we assume that during the period from 25 ka ago to 17 ka ago, the temperature at Mount Sandıras was lower by the same amount as that in the Soreq Cave. Moreover, because the Soreq Cave is 400 m above sea level while Sandıras is well above this elevation, it is likely that the 6 1C cooling inferred for the Soreq Cave is a minimum cooling expected at Mount Sandıras. To produce glaciers on Mount Sandıras, this moderate cooling would have to 55 be accompanied by precipitation 3.3 times higher than today, which is unlikely. If the prescribed precipitation level from Soreq Cave is used, this will make the LGM temperatures on Mount Sandıras 12–13.5 1C colder than today (Fig. 4). In order to obtain better estimates of terrestrial temperatures in the Eastern Mediterranean, McGarry et al. (2004) measured the hydrogen-isotopic composition (dD) of speleothems fluid inclusions from three caves including the Soreq Cave in Israel and showed that the LGM temperature was about 10 1C cooler than today. A similar amount of cooling, 9.5–10 1C, was obtained from the alkenone and d18O records in sediment cores from the Mediterranean Sea (Emeis et al., 2000), in Levantine basin (Kallel et al., 2000) and Crete (Emeis et al., 1998). Furthermore, these data are in good agreement with land-based reconstructions of temperatures and precipitation rates (Bar-Matthews et al., 2003). Assuming a 10 1C cooling during the LGM, our model results indicate a precipitation rate that is 1.3 times higher than the modern value (Fig. 4). Both results from the Soreq Cave and deep sea cores in the Mediterranean Sea, when fed into our glacial model, imply a wet and cold LGM on Mount Sandıras. Humid and cold climate during LGM on Mount Sandıras is also supported by reconstruction of paleoclimate in Greece. Hughes et al. (2003, 2006b) used the geological record of glaciers and rock glaciers on Pindus Mountains and suggested that the Würm glacier stage was 8.5 1C (8–9 1C) cooler and slightly wetter (1.1 times) than today. If we assume the same amount of cooling on Mount Sandıras, the LGM precipitation would have to almost double (1.9 times more than modern). If we assume their paleoprecipitation estimates, our model yields 11 1C of cooling. Further north, in Anatolia, although there is generally agreement on colder condition during the LGM, contemporary moisture levels are incongruous. Lacustrine facies analyses on Konya plain show that lake levels were high at and prior to the LGM (Roberts, 1983; Kuzucuoğlu et al., 1999; Roberts et al., 1999, 2001) and the data is consistent with other lakes in Turkey (Roberts and Wright, 1993; Kashima, 2002). High lake stands are indicative of high input of water (wetter conditions) or lower evaporation to precipitation rates which indicate lower temperatures. Jones et al. (2007) studied Eski Acıgöl, a closed basin lake in Central Anatolia, using hydrological and isotope mass balance models and reported that glacial time (between 23 and 16 ka before present) precipitation was 63% drier than today, in agreement with palynological studies. Van Zeist et al. (1975) show steppe and almost treeless vegetation implying that the climate was dry in southwestern Turkey during LGM. In contrast, marine pollen records from the Marmara Sea (Mudie et al., 2002) revealed LGM climate slightly wetter on the mountains that surround the Marmara Sea. For drier LGM, if we assume that the precipitation was 60% less, our modeling ARTICLE IN PRESS M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769–780 results reveal that accompanying temperatures should be depressed by about 14 1C (Fig. 4). In conclusion, there is no consensus regarding the moisture levels in the region during the LGM. While some researchers suggest that it was drier (van Zeist et al., 1975; Robinson et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2007) others think the opposite (Gvirtzman and Wieder, 2001; Mudie et al., 2002; Hughes et al., 2003). Furthermore, paleoprecipitation values change from region to region, coastal areas versus interiors (Jones et al., 2007), which imply that local climate factors played an important role. Because of these uncertainties, we prefer to use a range of paleotemperature estimates and report the paleoprecipitation conditions rather than report a fixed value for either one. If the extreme case of cooling by only 6 1C (Bar-Matthews et al., 1997) is ignored, as highly unlikely, other temperature estimates are in the range of between 10 and 8.5 1C. Our analysis of paleoconditions on Mount Sandıras suggests that the use of the Hughes et al.’s (2003) estimate of 8.5 1C as a minimum limit of cooling on Mount Sandıras will almost double the precipitation rates necessary to produce glaciers consistent with the observed moraines on Kartal Lake Valley (Fig. 4). Up to 11.5 1C of cooling sustain wetter conditions. Our present day climate estimates on Mount Sandıras, at an elevation of 2000 m, which is close to the LGM time ELA, is calculated as annual average temperature of about 6 1C and annual precipitation of about 1 m. Our model results show that under the wetter conditions (1–1.9 m), the cooling by 8.5–11.5 1C will bring the mean annual temperature to between 5.5 and 2.5 1C at 2000 m on Mount Sandıras. 6. Conclusion The most extensive glacial advance on Mount Sandıras ended by 20.471.3 ka ago, and the final deglaciation commenced by 16.270.5 ka ago. Modeling of glacier mass balance shows a wide range of possible temperatures and precipitation rates necessary to produce Mount Sandıras glaciers. Without independent estimates of temperature and precipitation for LGM, model results do not provide a unique combination of these variables based on simulated ice extent. An LGM half as wet as today requires a cooling by 13.5 1C, whereas an LGM twice as wet as today requires a cooling by 8.5 1C. By employing published paleoclimate proxy data, the range can be reduced significantly. However, the temperature estimates from the proxy data indicate no more than 10 1C of cooling during the LGM in the Eastern Mediterranean. Assuming this published temperature range, the model yields up to 1.9 times higher precipitation rate which indicates wetter conditions during the LGM on the study area. This is supported by high lake levels in and around Anatolia, but not by palynological analysis which is sensitive to unique set of variables, including seasonality changes. Our results imply high moisture levels during LGM for the southwest coasts of 56 Anatolia. This is at odds with the conventional view of LGM being cold and dry in Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean. Acknowledgments This research was supported by the US National Science Foundation (Grant 0115298) and by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) (Grant 101Y002). References Akc- ar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schluchter, C., 2007. Paleoglacial records from Kavron Valley, NE Turkey: field and cosmogenic exposure dating evidence. Quaternary International 164–165, 170–183. Almasi, P.F., 2001. Dating the paleobeaches of Pampa Mejillones, Northern Chile by cosmogenic chlorine-36. M.S. Thesis, University of Arizona, Tucson AZ, USA. 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American Geophysical Union Conference, San Francisco, USA, T11A-0425. 59 APPENDIX C GLACIATIONS AND PALEOCLIMATE OF MOUNT ERCIYES, CENTRAL TURKEY, SINCE THE LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM, INFERRED FROM 36Cl COSMOGENIC DATING AND GLACIER MODELING Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya1, Marek Zreda1, Attila Çiner2 1 Hydrology and Water Resources Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA 2 Geological Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey [Accepted for publication in the Quaternary Science Reviews] DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.04.015 60 Abstract Forty-four boulders from moraines in two glacial valleys of Mount Erciyes (38.53oN, 35.45oE, 3917 m), central Turkey, dated with cosmogenic chlorine-36 (36Cl), indicate four periods of glacial activity in the past 22 ka (1 ka = 1000 calendar years). Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) glaciers were the most extensive, reaching 6 km in length and descending to an altitude of 2150 m above sea level. These glaciers started retreating 21.3±0.9 ka (1σ) ago. They readvanced and retreated by 14.6±1.2 ka ago (Late Glacial), and again by 9.3±0.5 ka ago (Early Holocene). The latest advance took place 3.8±0.4 ka ago (Late Holocene). Using glacier modeling together with paleoclimate proxy data from the region, we reconstructed the paleoclimate at these four discrete times. The results show that LGM climate was 8-11oC colder than today and moisture levels were somewhat similar to modern values, with a range between 20% more and 25% less than today. The analysis of Late Glacial advance suggests that the climate was colder by 4.56.4oC based on up to 1.5 times wetter conditions. The Early Holocene was 2.1oC to 4.9oC colder and up to twice as wet as today, while the Late Holocene was 2.4-3oC colder and its precipitation amounts approached to similar conditions as today. Our paleoclimate reconstructions show a general trend of warming for the last 22 ka, and an increase of moisture until Early Holocene, and a decrease after that time. The recent glacier terminates at 3450 m on the northwest side of the mountain. It is a remnant from the last advance (possibly during the Little Ice Age). Repeated measurements of glacier length 61 between 1902 and 2008 reveal a retreat rate of 4.2 m per year, which corresponds to a warming rate of 0.9-1.2oC per century. 1. Introduction Glaciers provide the most important and direct sources of information on climate change (Nesje and Dahl, 2000). In particular, mountain glaciers are very sensitive indicators of changes of temperature and precipitation. They promptly respond to the minute changes on local climate via adjusting their mass balances, and therefore sizes (Oerlemans, 2005), which can be used as a climate proxy. Thus, paleoclimatic inferences are commonly made based on the extent of the past mountain glaciers inferred from the position of their moraines (Refsnider et al., 2007). Mountains of Turkey were extensively glaciated during the Late Quaternary (Çiner, 2004; Sarıkaya, 2009, and references therein), and numerous well preserved moraines exists, providing unique and valuable opportunities to infer past climates of Turkey and the Eastern Mediterranean. Today, several mountains of Turkey support glaciers. Mount Ağrı (5137 m) (also known as Mt. Ararat), in eastern Anatolia (Fig. 1.a), has an ice cap covering the area of approximately 10 km2 with several outlet glaciers (Kurter, 1991). Mount Cilo (4135 m), in southeastern Turkey (Fig. 1.a), has active cirques and valley glaciers up to 1.5 km in length. The Kaçkar Mountains (3932 m), on the Black Sea coast (Fig. 1.a) contain glaciers up to 1 km in length (Akçar et al., 2007). Mount Erciyes (3917 m), in central 62 Turkey (Fig. 1.a), is the westernmost mountain that has a glacier today (Sarıkaya et al., 2003). Glacial-geological evidence of more extensive glaciers in the Late Pleistocene is also common throughout the high mountains of Turkey (İzbırak, 1951; Erinç, 1952; Messerli, 1964; 1967; Birman, 1968; Kurter, 1991; Çiner, 2004; Sarıkaya et al., 2008). Among them, Mount Erciyes has attracted much attention due to the easy access from the nearby city of Kayseri, the extraordinary preservation of glacial deposits in the region's dry climate, and the existence of an active glacier. The first scientific study of glaciation on Erciyes was published by Penther (1905). Zederbauer (cited by Penther) described the glacier as having a length of 700 m and descending to an altitude of 3180 m, and included the first photograph (taken on July 1902, please see Fig. 7) of the Aksu Valley glacier. Erinç (1951) divided past glacial advances into two parts: Glacial (Late Pleistocene) and Postglacial (Holocene). Messerli (1964) mapped the recent glacier and placed the local snow line (similar to equilibrium line altitudes, ELA) at 3650 m which is 950 m higher than the Würm snow line. He concluded the depression of snow line in Anatolia was due to increased precipitation during the glacial periods (Messerli, 1967). Later, Güner and Emre (1983) examined the glacial stages and explained the relationships between the glaciation and volcanism in the mountain. Recently, Sarıkaya et al. (2003) compiled the past and present glacial records in the mountain. However, whereas some glacial deposits were dated by relative techniques, including stratigraphic relationships, degree of weathering/oxidation and soil/vegetation development (Erinç, 1951; Güner and Emre, 1983; Sarıkaya et al., 2003), 63 none have been dated numerically. Consequently, the timing of glaciations is unknown, precluding the paleoclimatic interpretations and correlations with other proxy records of paleoclimate. Here, we report the first results of dating of glaciations on Mount Erciyes using the cosmogenic chlorine-36 (36Cl) method, and modeling of glacier response to past climatic changes using a glacier ice flow line model. Based on these results, we reconstruct temperature and precipitation at the time of glaciations, and compare our glaciallyderived record of paleoclimate with other Late Quaternary climate proxies from the region. 2. Physical setting, geology and climate Mount Erciyes (38.53oN, 35.45oE, 3917 m), historically known as Mount Argaeus (named after the Macedonian king Argaeus I, 678-640 BC), is the highest mountain in the Central Anatolia, Turkey (Fig 1.a). The mountain is located about 20 km south of the city of Kayseri (1068 m) and rises about 2850 m above its base. Erciyes is a stratovolcano developed in two main evolutionary stages (Şen et al., 2003). The first stage begun with basaltic lava flows, followed by differentiated sequences (basaltic andesite, andesite, dacite and rhyodacite), and terminated with extensive ignimbritic eruptions ~3 Ma ago (Innocenti et al., 1975). The second stage involved 64 basaltic, andesitic, dacitic and rhyolitic lavas, and terminated with pyroclastic eruptions and debris avalanches. The youngest volcanic deposits are the dacitic lava flows and dome of Çarık Tepe, which gave a K-Ar age of 80±10 ka (ka=1000 years) (Notsu et al., 1995), and the rhyodacite domes of Perikartını, Karagüllü and Dikkartın, which gave 14C ages on charcoal and cosmogenic 36Cl ages on lava surfaces of ca. 10 ka (Sarıkaya et al., 2006). Turkey is situated between (1) the temperate Mediterranean climates influenced by North Atlantic cyclones (Macklin et al., 2002), (2) mid-latitude subtropical high-pressure systems (la Fontaine et al., 1990), and (3) possibly Indian monsoon climates (Jones et al., 2006). Three types of main storm tracks that carry moisture to Turkey were described by Akçar and Schlüchter (2005). The first type brings cold and humid air from the polar North Atlantic by westerlies and mostly produces winter precipitation. The second type of storm tracks brings tropical hot and dry air from mid-Atlantic and North Africa with additional moisture from the Mediterranean, and produce summer precipitation in the southern Anatolia. Finally, continental polar air masses transport dry and cold air from Siberia, and condense on north Anatolian mountains after taking up the moisture over Black Sea (Akçar and Schlüchter, 2005). Precipitation in the region is strongly affected by the local topography. The Taurus and the Kaçkar Mountains along the south and northeast coasts of Anatolia, respectively, play an important role in the distribution of the moisture over the Anatolian Plateau. The high altitudes of these mountain ranges create a 65 natural barrier between coastal areas and the interior, which results in a negative precipitation gradient towards the interior. The present climate in the interior of Turkey, where Mount Erciyes is situated, is characterized by hot and dry summers, and cold and moderately wet winters. Average summer temperature (June, July and August; JJA) in Kayseri meteorological station, at 1068 m, is about 19oC, and average winter temperature (December, January and February; DJF) is about 0oC. Long-term (1961-1990) annual average precipitation total is 383 mm at the same station; most of it falls in fall, winter and spring months (85%) and only 15% of it falls on JJA. All climate data used in this study were downloaded from Global Historical Climatology Network, version 2 (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate /ghcn-monthly/index.php). 3. Glacial activity on Mount Erciyes Erciyes has two major and three minor valleys that were previously occupied by glaciers (Sarıkaya et al., 2003) (Fig. 1.b). The major valleys are the northwest trending Aksu Valley and the eastward oriented Üçker Valley. They have several distinguished moraines indicating past glacial activities. The northeast trending Öksüzdere Valley and two small valleys (Topaktaş and Saraycık) on the southern side of the mountain were also glaciated, but the glacial deposits in those valleys are less well preserved than those in the Aksu and Üçker valleys. Furthermore, the Aksu Valley has an active glacier (Sarıkaya et 66 al., 2003), and the Üçker Valley has rock glaciers (Güner and Emre, 1983). For the purpose of developing a glacial and paleoclimatic record on the mountain, we studied the glacial deposits in the Aksu and Üçker valleys. 3.1. Aksu Valley The Aksu Valley (Fig. 1.b) starts as a glacial cirque on the northwestern slopes of the peak (3917 m) and continues about 6 km northwest down to an altitude of 2100 m. It is a typical U-shaped glacial valley, with three separate cirques (Fig. 1.d) surrounded by steep walls up to 400 m high. The main, central cirque contains a retreating glacier whose tongue receded to an altitude of 3450 m. The western and northern cirques have no permanent ice, today. The northern cirque becomes a tributary valley that converges with the main Aksu Valley at two points around a bedrock ridge, at 3000 m and 2750 m of elevation (Fig. 1.c and d). The Aksu Valley and its tributaries show well preserved glacial depositional and erosional features, including moraines, outwash deposits, roches moutonnées, striations, arêtes, crescent-like scours, and polished surfaces (Sarıkaya et al, 2003). Using relative dating methods, Erinç (1951) grouped the glacial deposits in the Aksu Valley and its tributaries into two evolutionary stages: the Glacial stage (Late Pleistocene, probably the Last Glacial Maximum; LGM) and the Postglacial stage (Holocene). He proposed two separate glacial advances during the Glacial Stage of Late Pleistocene. The most 67 extensive moraines that reach down to 2150 m represent the oldest phase. They include well-preserved lateral moraines on both sides of the Aksu Valley between 2550-2750 m (Fig. 1.c and 2). These moraines are at the same elevation, symmetrically placed, and have similar sizes - both about 60 m high and 60-120 m wide. A younger glacial advance, whose moraines can be traced at 2850 m and are partially washed by later glacial advances, corresponds to the second stage of the Late Pleistocene glaciation. Moraines deposited during the Postglacial stage occupy the area in front of the recent glacier at elevations above 3000 m (Erinç, 1951). They are fresh looking, have steep slopes, contain mostly fresh clasts, and have almost no vegetation cover (Fig. 3). Erinç (1951) concluded that this latest expansion of glaciers occurred in a cooler and probably moister period after the Climatic Optimum of the Holocene and must therefore be separated from the older stages. Later retreat, interrupted by re-expansions that left various ridges of end moraines, has continued to the present and caused the continual shrinkage of the recent glacier (Erinç, 1951). The flat surface in the lower part of the valley between the Karagüllü volcanic dome and the first stage moraines (at around 2100 m) (Fig. 1.b) is the outwash plain of the first stage glaciation, and most of it was covered by Karagüllü lava flows (Sarıkaya et al., 2003), whose age of ca. 10 ka (Sarıkaya et al., 2006) provides the minimum limiting age for these outwash deposits. The plains of the Aksu Valley between 2600 m and 3000 m (Fig. 1.c and 2) have outwash deposits that consist of different clast sizes, from metersized boulders to fine-grained fractions. A boulder field at 2600-2700 m has several large 68 boulders, 2-3 m in diameter, embedded in the matrix. Sarıkaya et al. (2003) interpreted this gently-sloping area (5o) as the outwash plain of earlier glacial advances. Terraces in this area provide evidence of sequenced glacio-fluvial activity. The recent outwash plain (2850-3000 m) (Fig 1.d) has a gentle slope (10o) and is braided by small streams originating from the recent glacier. The surface is less vegetated than the older outwash landforms. 3.2. Üçker Valley The east trending, broad Üçker Valley extends over 8 km between the peak of Erciyes (3917 m) and the Erciyes Ski Center at 2200 m (Fig. 1.e). The upper part of the valley is an amphitheater, about 2 km wide and 1 km deep, produced by a volcanic collapse at the last stage of the volcanism (Şen et al., 2003). Surrounded by steep walls on the west and south, the amphitheater was an effective ice accumulation area for Üçker valley glaciers. Although at present there is no glacier in that depression, a rock glacier occupies an area of about 1 km2 between the elevations of 2960 m and 3350 m on the north facing slopes of the cirque (Güner and Emre, 1983; Sarıkaya et al., 2003). Güner and Emre (1983) described and mapped the glacial deposits in Üçker Valley, and divided them into three different stages. They assigned a Würm age to the oldest moraines, which are as extensive as their coevals in the Aksu Valley (Fig. 1.b and e). These moraines reach down to 2200 m and end near the Erciyes Ski Center. They lost 69 their original morphologies due to deep dissection by later fluvial activity. Processes of physical weathering, oxidation and soil development are common on these moraines. The second moraine covers the oldest one at an altitude of 2600 m. It contacts a younger moraine at 2650 m with a steep front (Fig. 1.d). This third moraine set has typical hummocky morphology that consists of 1-2 m high and 3-5 m wide hills separated by 1-2 m deep and 3-5 m wide depressions. The boulders at the surface of these moraines are semi-angular to angular. The youngest moraines in the valley are present at 3250 m and have characteristic fresh looking surfaces with almost no matrix and vegetation. They contain large boulders (2-3 m in diameter) with well-preserved glacial features, such as crescent marks, polish and striae. Güner and Emre (1983) correlated the ages of these younger moraines with the Postglacial advance described in the Aksu Valley by Erinç (1951). Outwash plains in the Üçker Valley are present in front of the oldest moraines below 2100 m (Güner and Emre, 1983) (Fig 1.d). They contain different size materials ranging from boulders to fine-grained sediments that are deeply dissected by streams. Several distinct terraces are present (Bartsch, 1935) here. A relatively small flat area between 2910 m and 2850 m (Fig 1.d) defines the outwash plain, probably associated with later glacial activity. 70 4. Methods 4.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl dating method The cosmogenic 36 Cl dating method (Davis and Schaeffer, 1955; Phillips et al., 1986; Zreda et al., 1991; Zreda and Phillips, 2000) was used to develop glacial chronologies of Mount Erciyes. This technique is based on in-situ accumulation of 36Cl in rocks exposed to cosmic radiation. Although cosmic particles are strongly attenuated in the atmosphere (Desilets and Zreda, 2003; Desilets et al., 2006a), some reach the earth’s surface and interact with atoms of Ca, K and Cl (Zreda et al., 1991) to produce 36 Cl. Because the production rates of 36Cl are known (Zreda et al., 1991; Phillips et al., 1996, 2001; Stone et al., 1996, 1998; Swanson and Caffee, 2001; Licciardi et al., 2008), measured concentrations of 36Cl in rocks can be used to assign exposure ages of surfaces of glacial deposits (Zreda et al., 1999; Owen et al., 2001; Sarıkaya et al., 2008). ACE (Age Calculation Engine, http://ace.hwr.arizona.edu) cosmogenic dating software (Anderson et al., 2007; Zweck et al., 2009) is used to calculate the 36Cl surface exposure ages, using the following production rates: 71.7±3.2 atoms atoms 36 36 Cl (g Ca)-1 yr-1, 154.5±8.0 Cl (g K)-1 yr-1 and 686.0±42.5 fast neutrons (g air)-1 yr-1. These reference production rates are based on the calibration data set of Phillips et al. (1996). They have been corrected for secular changes in paleomagnetic intensity (Guyodo and Valet, 1999; Yang et al., 2000), changes in geomagnetic pole position (Ohno and Hamano, 1992) and 71 eustatic changes in sea level (Fairbanks, 1989; Shackleton, 2000) after scaling to sea level (atmospheric pressure 1033 g cm-2) and high geomagnetic latitude (geomagnetic cutoff rigidity <2 GV) using Desilets and Zreda (2003) and Desilets et al. (2006a). The samples were collected using the methods described in Sarıkaya (2009). Cl was liberated from the rock matrix by dissolving the sample in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids in pressure digestion bombs (Almasi, 2001; Desilets et al., 2006b), and sulfur was separated from Cl using chromatographic techniques to remove isobar of 36 Cl and interferes with the measurement of 36 36 S, which is an Cl using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) (Fifield, 1999; Steier et al., 2005). The isobaric interference of 36 S is an important problem in AMS measurement of 36 Cl (Gosse and Phillips, 2001). Usually S is removed by precipitation as BaSO4, which must be repeated several times for satisfactory results. Here, we developed a chemical technique for separation of Cl from S using columns of ion exchange resin. Prior to separation in columns, we applied one step of BaSO4 precipitation to remove the bulk of S. The samples were then loaded to a 2 cm3 preconditioned DOWEX 1X8-400 mesh exchange resin (converted to OH- form by eluting several bed volumes (Bv; 1Bv=2 cm3) of 1.5 M NH4OH) using a peristaltic pump. Cl was eluted from the column with 70 Bv 0.01 M HNO3, and later S by 30 Bv 0.1 M HNO3. Then, the column and resin were flushed with 10 Bv 18 MΩ cm H2O and 10 Bv 1.5 M NH4OH to prepare them for the next sample. Finally, Cl was precipitated as AgCl. The separation process takes less than 72 3 hours, much shorter than the traditional method based on precipitation of BaSO4 (several days), and Cl recovery is higher than ~80%. 36 Cl/Cl was measured with accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at PRIME Lab, Purdue University, Indiana, USA. Total Cl was first estimated using the ion specific electrode method (Aruscavage and Campbell, 1983; Elsheimer, 1987) at the University of Arizona, and its accurate determination was made from measurement of 37 Cl/35Cl on spiked samples (Desilets et al., 2006b) after the AMS measurement of 36Cl/Cl. Major elements were measured with inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AE), selected trace elements were measured with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and boron was measured with prompt gamma-neutron activation analysis (PGNAA), all at Activation Laboratories, Inc., Ontario, Canada (Table 1). 4.2. Glacier modeling We used a one-dimensional numerical ice flow line model to determine the climatic conditions during previous glaciations on Mount Erciyes. The modeling procedure applied in this study is described in Sarıkaya et al. (2008). It simulates the flow of ice enforced by the annual mass balance gradient at any point of a topographic flow line of a glacier. The mass balance is calculated by the difference of the net accumulation and ablation of snow, and used to create the glacier growth according to the equations of ice flow (Paterson, 1994; Haeberli, 1996). Since the simulated ice extent is a function of 73 prescribed climatic conditions, the model allows the user to match modeled and field observed extent of the glacier to draw inferences about the past climates. Ice mass balance on the flow line was calculated by using the accumulation of ice predicted by snowfall modeled as precipitation occurring below zero degree and ablation of ice/snow by using positive degree day factors, which assume a correlation between the sum of positive air temperatures and the amount of ablation (Braithwaite, 1995). Degree day factors of 3 mm day-1 oC-1 (water equivalent) for snow and 8 mm day-1 oC-1 for ice (Braithwaite and Zhang, 2000) were assumed, as was a standard deviation of 3.95oC for the monthly mean surface temperature, which is based on the Kayseri meteorology station data. The temperature reconstructions at altitudes where the moraines are present were made by using the monthly temperatures measured in Kayseri meteorological station and monthly radiosonde-derived temperature lapse rates (radiosonde data downloaded from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration / Earth System Research Laboratory, http://raob.fsl.noaa.gov) calculated at the Ankara station (270 km northwest of Mount Erciyes). The precipitation data were derived from 10 nearby meteorological stations located within a radius of 100 km from Mount Erciyes. Vertical precipitation gradients were used to project the monthly precipitation amounts on Mount Erciyes. Our present day temperature estimates on Mount Erciyes, at an elevation of 2700 m, which is close to the LGM time ELA, are -8.6oC (winter average, DJF), 7.6oC (summer average, JJA) and - 74 0.4oC (annual average). Yearly precipitation total at the same elevation is estimated as 722 mm, with 227 mm of it falling during the winter (DJF) and 85 mm during the summer (JJA). 5. Results 5.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl exposure ages 5.1.1. Aksu Valley Twenty-seven boulders were sampled in the Aksu Valley. Six samples (samples 12, 13, 14, 25, 26, and 27) were collected from the well-preserved lateral moraines (Fig. 1.c). These have ages that range from 11 ka to 25 ka (Table 2). Sample 12, 13 and 14 were collected from the left lateral moraine. Sample 13 (11±0.6 ka) is four standard deviations apart from the nearest sample age, and it is thus considered an outlier and removed from further consideration. The remaining two samples (12 and 14) have an average age of 20.7±1.8 ka (all moraine ages are reported as weighted averages of their boulders with uncertainties at the 1-sigma level). Samples 25, 26 and 27 were collected from the right lateral moraine, and their ages are 22.2±1.4 ka, 16.6±0.9 ka and 25.3±1.2 ka, respectively. They gave an average age of 21.4±2.6 ka for that moraine. Sample 26 is off by more than two standard deviations from the remaining samples. If we remove that sample from our calculations, the average age of the right lateral moraine becomes 75 24.0±1.6 ka, and the average age of both moraines increases to 22.4±1.4 ka. The ages of the two lateral moraines are within their error limits with or without sample 26. Thus, it is most likely that the age of both moraines is between 21.2±1.6 ka (5 samples) and 22.4±1.4 ka (4 samples), and this range will be used in further discussions. These ages clearly indicate that the big lateral moraines of the Aksu Valley were deposited during the broadly defined Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (Fig. 4.b). Samples 5, 6 and 7 were from boulders on the moraine adjacent to the right lateral LGM moraine of the Aksu Valley (Fig. 1.c). Sample 7 (6.3±0.8 ka) is significantly younger than others (Table 2). This moraine has subdued morphology and is embedded in the surrounding outwash deposits. It is possible that sample 7 was deposited on it by subsequent fluvial activity. Thus, we exclude sample 7 from moraine age calculation. Samples 5 and 6 gave an average age of 14.1±1.3 ka. This age is supported by samples (15, 16, 17, 18 and 22) collected from a lateral moraine in the right tributary valley. Their mean age is 13.7±1.3 ka (Table 2). The ages from both moraines reveal that they were deposited during the Late Glacial (Fig. 4.b). Late Glacial moraines in the Aksu Valley were heavily obliterated by later advances, and only small remnants survived today. Samples 23 (pictured in Fig. 3) and 24 were collected from the right tributary valley. They are on the crest of a moraine that is overlying the Late Glacial moraine and shows considerably younger ages than those samples on the Late Glacial moraine. Sample 23 has an age of 8.7±0.5 ka, and sample 24 has an age of 10.6±0.6 ka (Fig. 4.b). The average 76 of two samples is 9.6±0.9 ka. There were no more boulders suitable for sampling on this moraine. Samples 19, 20 and 21 were collected from fresh looking boulders of moraines in the upper part of the right tributary valley (Fig. 3). Their mean age of 3.8±0.4 ka indicates that these were deposited by Neoglacial expansion of glaciers during the Late Holocene. Samples 1, 2 and 3 were collected from moraines within the left cirque (Fig. 1.d). They have a mean age of 1.2±1.0 ka. The large uncertainty is due to the age of sample 1 (1.0±2.8 ka) which has a very high analytical error. If we exclude sample 1 from our calculations, the moraine age will be 1.2±0.3 ka. The ages from the two tributary cirques/valleys indicate that upper moraines in the Aksu Valley were deposited in the Late Holocene (Fig. 4.b). The lower outwash plains, between 2600 m and 2700 m, contain numerous scattered large boulders, far from the bedrock ridges. In order to support our moraine ages from the upper Aksu valley, we collected five samples (4, 8, 9, 10 and 11) from the boulders on these outwash plains. The samples yielded ages from 2.0±0.2 ka to 9.5±0.5 ka (Table 2). Their ages can be divided into two groups based on the age and position within the outwash plain (Fig. 4.b); the first group (samples 4, 8 and 11) has an average age of 2.5±0.3 ka and the second group (samples 9 and 10) has an average age of 8.7±1.4 ka. The first group indicates that they were deposited during the younger glacier advances 77 (Late Holocene) and the second group during the older advances (Early Holocene). This conclusion is supported by the Early and Late Holocene moraines in the upper valley. 5.1.2. Üçker Valley Seventeen samples were collected in the Üçker Valley (Table 2). Samples 43, 44, 45 and 46 were from a left lateral moraine (Fig. 1.e), and gave three consistent ages and one older outlier (sample 44; 35.0±1.8 ka, probably containing 36 Cl inherited from episodes of previous exposure to cosmic radiation). The average of the three younger samples, 20.4±1.5 ka, correlates with the LGM moraines in the Aksu Valley (Fig. 4.c) that were deposited between 21.2±1.6 ka and 22.4±1.4 ka ago. Consequently, the timing of maximum glaciation on Mount Erciyes can be considered as the average of both valleys, which is 21.3±0.9 ka. Samples 52, 53, 55, 56 and 57 were collected from a moraine between the elevation of 2500 and 2650 (Fig. 1.e). Samples 52 and 57 have large analytical uncertainties, with ages 28.3±16.1 ka and 7.2±5.9 ka, respectively. Sample 52 is older than all other samples in that moraine. Thus, we interpreted that this sample contains 36 Cl inherited from previous exposures to cosmic radiation. Sample 57 is very close to the moraines from the younger advance. Its age is younger than others, which may indicate it might have rolled down from the nearby younger moraines. Therefore, we did not include these two samples in to the age calculation of this moraine; the remaining samples gave an average 78 age of 15.2±2.0 ka. If we would include all samples together, the age of the moraine would be 15.8±3.6 ka, which is not significantly different. This moraine, with an age of 15.2±2.0 ka, correlates with the moraines of the Late Glacial advance in the Aksu Valley (Fig. 4.c). Consequently, the age of Late Glacial advance on the mountain can be taken as the average of both valleys, which is 14.6±1.2 ka. We collected eight samples (39, 40, 41, 47, 48, 49, 51 and 64) from the hummocky moraine complex between 2650 and 3100 m in Üçker Valley. Their ages range from 7.0±0.8 ka to 11.1±0.5 ka, with an average age of 9.2±0.5 ka, which indicates they were deposited during the Early Holocene glacial advances. This is consistent with the Early Holocene moraines dated to 9.6±0.9 ka in the Aksu Valley (Fig. 4.c). Thus, we are reporting that the Early Holocene glaciation occurred 9.3±0.5 ka ago, which is the average age of moraines in both valleys. 5.2. Glacier Modeling We applied the ice flow line model in both main valleys of Mount Erciyes. Given that they have similar cross sections and climatic inputs to the model, and have comparable extents of past glaciations, they produced almost identical results. Because of that we report modeling results only from the Aksu Valley (Fig. 5), which has four glacial advances in Late Quaternary, and limit further discussion to that valley. 79 In the Aksu Valley, our model uses the flow line (Fig. 1.b) starting at the elevation of 3650 m on the top boundary of the recent glacier and continues down to 2052 m, which is about 100 m below the lowest moraine. The total length of the flow line is 6.8 km, well in excess of the distance to the outermost moraines, which are situated 5.8 km from the starting point. Modeled glacier lengths as a function of temperature and precipitation changes from modern conditions are plotted in Fig. 5. The contours show how the length of the glacier varies with climate. Each contour represents the extent of the glaciation (in length) deduced from the moraine locations in the valley. For instance, LGM moraines are located 5.8 km away from the head of the glacier. In order to produce LGM glaciers that are 5.8 km long, the temperature must drop by 9oC, if the precipitation amount is kept constant (modern precipitation line in Fig. 5), and by 5.7oC, if the precipitation amount doubles. Our modeling results indicate that wetter conditions need less temperature drops, and drier conditions require greater temperature drops to produce the same glaciers. As seen from Fig. 5, the paleoclimatic conditions that could have produced past glaciers vary greatly. One should use other climate proxies to narrow that range. Generally, the slope of the contour lines are steep for small temperature decreases, which means that larger precipitation increases are necessary to balance small temperature drops to produce glaciers. The “modern precipitation line” shown in Fig. 5 indicates a cooling of 9oC, 6.4oC, 4.9oC and 2.6oC necessary to produce LGM, Late Glacial, Early Holocene and Late Holocene glaciers, respectively. Under the modern climatic conditions (open 80 circle in Fig. 5), our model produces a glacier that is about 200 m long, which is consistent with the field observations of the modern glacier. We have tested the model results by calculating the paleo-ELAs of former glaciations using the model outputs. ELA is defined as the elevation at which the computed mass balance is zero. Our model yielded zero mass balances at 2695 m, 2796 m, 2972 m and 3225 m for LGM, Late Glacial, Early Holocene and Late Holocene glaciations, respectively. The accumulation area ratio (AAR) method (Porter, 1975) with AAR value of 0.6 (Nesje and Dahl, 2000) gave comparable results at 2670m, 2820 m, 2970 m, 3150 m. Messerli (1967) calculated Würm snow line at the altitude of 2700 m, which is comparable to our model results. Recent ELA is at 3553 m, from model results, and 3525 m and 3650 m by AAR method and Messerli's (1967) calculations, respectively. 6. Discussion of timing of glaciations Recent research has established the timing of past glaciations in several mountains in Turkey using cosmogenic nuclides (Akçar et al., 2007; 2008; Sarıkaya et al., 2008; Zahno et al., 2006; 2007; 2009; Zreda et al., 2009) (Fig. 4.d). These results are the first in the region and critical to improve the local glacial-chronologies and the paleoenvironmental interpretations. LGM glacier chronologies are available for the Kavron and Verçenik Valleys of Kaçkar Mountains (Akçar et al., 2007; 2008). According to the 10Be exposure ages from Kavron Valley, Akçar et al. (2007) reported the glaciation began at least 81 26.0±1.2 ka ago, continued until 18.3±0.9 ka ago with the local LGM advance. A similar result has been reported in the nearby Verçenik Valley (Akçar et al., 2008). The Verçenik paleoglaciers were advanced before 26.1±1.2 ka ago and continued until 18.8±1.0 ka ago. Sarıkaya et al. (2008) reported comparable chronologies in southwestern Anatolia by using 36Cl cosmogenic ages of moraines from Kartal Lake Valley, Mount Sandıras (Fig. 1.a). They reported that the maximum glaciation occurred approximately 20.4±1.3 ka ago, and the glaciers retreated by 19.6±1.6 ka ago. Zahno et al. (2007) reported that the LGM glaciation started about 26 ka ago and continued until 19 ka, in the Muslu Valley, Dedegöl Mountains (Fig. 1.a). On Uludağ (Fig. 1.a), the local LGM glaciation occurred by 20.3 ka ago (Zahno et al., 2009). These ages agree with our LGM moraine ages from Mount Erciyes (Fig. 4.d). Besides, the timing of local glacier maxima from Turkish mountains is closely correlated with the global LGM chron (between 19-23 ka and centered at 21 ka) (Mix et al., 2001), which is also coeval with the lowest sea level stand (120-135 m below present) of Marine Isotope Stage 2 (Martinson et al., 1987; Yokoyama et al., 2000). This result is also supported by cosmogenic results from other Mediterranean mountains, including the central Spanish mountains (Palacios et al., 2007), the Pyrenees (Pallàs et al., 2007), and the Maritime Alps (Granger et al., 2006). However, as pointed out recently by Hughes and Woodward (2008), such an agreement is not always the case. A range of geochronological techniques has produced contrasting results for the timing of the local glacial maxima across Mediterranean mountain ranges. Radiocarbon, U-series and OSL dating in the Cantabrian Mountains (Jiménez-Sánchez and Farias, 2002), Pyrenees (García-Ruiz et al., 2003; González-Sampériz et al., 2006), 82 Italian Apennines (Fig. 1.a) (Giraudi and Frezzotti, 1997) and Pindus Mountains, Greece (Fig. 1.a) (Hughes et al., 2006; Woodward et al., 2008) have produced early local glacial maxima, several thousand to tens of thousands of years earlier than the global LGM. From comparison of different mountains of Anatolia (Fig. 4.d), it can be inferred that the regional LGM occurred at 19-23 ka, which correlates well with the global LGM. After the local LGM maximum in Kaçkar Mountains, recession of glaciers did not start until around 18.3±0.9 ka ago, in the Kavron Valley, and 18.8±0.8 ka ago in Verçenik Valley. Although the magnitude of this recession remains unknown, glaciers in Kaçkar Mountains most probably separated into smaller valley glaciers that were restricted to the tributaries (Akçar et al., 2007). A further glacial advance took place around 13.0±0.8 to 11.5±0.8 ka ago in Kavron Valley (Akçar et al., 2007). A comparable situation has been reported from nearby Verçenik Valley during the Late Glacial (possibly sometime between 13.6±0.7 ka and 10.4±0.7 ka ago) on the basis of glacial erosional features (Akçar et al., 2008). In the southwestern Turkey, Late Glacial advances occurred earlier than those in northeast of the country; at around 14 ka ago on Mount Dedegöl (Zahno et al., 2006), 16.2±0.5 ka ago on Mount Sandıras (Sarıkaya et al., 2008) and 16.1 ka ago on Uludağ (Zahno et al., 2009). Late Glacial advance on Mount Erciyes took place around the same time as those in western mountains. It seems that central and western Late Glacial advances occurred a few thousand years earlier than the Late Glacial advances in Kaçkar Mountains (Fig. 4.d). Akçar et al. (2008) claimed that Kavron Valley glaciers advanced most probably during the Younger Dryas (12.7-11.5 ka ago). In fact, similar 83 Younger Dryas glacial chronologies are also evident in mountains of southern Europe (Hughes et al., 2006), including the Maritime Alps (Federici et al., 2008), the Italian Apennines (Giraudi and Frezzotti, 1997), and Montenegro (Hughes and Woodward, 2008). However, in Corsica (Conchon, 1986) and in the Pirin Mountains, Bulgaria (Fig. 1.a) (Stefanova and Ammann, 2003), the valleys were ice-free during the Younger Dryas, which is also the case for the southwestern and central Anatolian mountains. Glaciation during the interglacial Early Holocene may seem unusual, but it is not unprecedented. Zreda et al. (2009) showed that Aladağlar (Fig. 1.a), a mountain range 80 km south of Mount Erciyes, had extensive glaciers that peaked at 10.2±0.2 ka and melted away by 8.6±0.3 ka (Fig. 4.d). Glaciers in Hacer Valley in Aladağlar descended more than 2000 m in elevation to extremely low altitudes of about 1100 m. It is fascinating to observe almost the same timing of glaciations, but smaller extent, on nearby Mount Erciyes. The Early Holocene glaciers in Mount Erciyes advanced and retreated by 9.6±0.9 ka ago in Aksu Valley and 9.2±0.5 ka ago in Üçker Valley. Early Holocene glaciations were reported not only from Turkey, but also from the Durmitor Massif, Montenegro (Fig. 1.a). Hughes and Woodward (2008) obtained U-series ages of 10.6±0.2 ka and 9.6±0.8 ka from secondary calcites of two well defined terminal moraines in Karlica Valley. It is unclear whether the Early Holocene glaciers in south-central Anatolia and Montenegro are representative of the wider region or limited to their localities. Other studies from Kaçkar Mountains, Dedegöl and Sandıras Mountains and Uludağ show no evidence of Early Holocene glaciers (Fig. 4.d), possibly due to the lower 84 elevation of these mountains. Nonetheless, the observed sizes of Early Holocene glaciers, particularly in Aladağlar, show that the climate might have been more variable than hitherto thought during the Early Holocene (Zreda et al., 2009). Late Holocene moraines on Mount Erciyes reveal that the glaciers advanced and retreated by 3.8±0.4 ka ago, and again by 1.2±0.3 ka ago in the Aksu Valley. These neoglaciers were restricted to the higher altitudes of Mount Erciyes. Phases of several Neoglacial advances were also recognized in Italian Apennines (around 4.3±0.1 ka ago, 2.8±0.03 ka ago and 1.3±0.03 ka ago) (Giraudi, 2004), in Maritime Alps (Federici and Stefanini, 2001) and in high cirques of Mount Olympus, Greece (Fig. 1.a) (Smith et al., 1997). Even younger moraines were observed in the main cirque of Aksu Valley (Fig. 1.d) and in the higher altitudes of Üçker Valley (Fig. 1.c), but we could not date them because of the lack of suitable boulders. The main valley in the Aksu Valley (above 3000 m) has very fresh looking moraines which we infer were from the younger glacial advances than the Neoglacial, most probably the Little Ice Age (LIA). Neoglacial and LIA moraines appear to be absent in Kaçkar Mountains (Akçar et al., 2007; 2008) and in western Turkey (Zahno et al., 2007; 2009; Sarıkaya et al., 2008) (Fig. 4.d), but are present in Mount Erciyes, in the European Alps and other mountains in the Mediterranean region (Grove, 1988). The modern glacier on Mount Erciyes is interpreted as a remnant of the LIA glaciers due to the similar characteristics of its deposits (Erinç, 1952). 85 7. Paleoclimatic interpretations 7.1. Last Glacial Maximum The paleoclimatic records of the LGM in the Eastern Mediterranean suggest that the region was generally cooler than present (Robinson et al., 2006). Elevated δ18O and δ13C values of speleothems from Soreq Cave (Fig 1.a) between 25 and 17 ka ago show LGM was the coldest period of the last 25 ka (Bar-Matthews et al., 1997). McGarry et al. (2004) used the fluid inclusions within the speleothems and calculated the LGM air temperature in the range of ~8-12oC above the Soreq Cave, which is about 6-10oC cooler than the modern values, comparable with the results obtained by clumped isotope thermometry (Affek et al., 2008). Alkenone and δ18O records in sediment cores from the Levantine Basin (Emeis et al., 2000) suggested similar sea surface temperatures (SST) of about 12oC, which is at least 5-6oC colder than modern values. Hayes et al. (2005) also calculated the LGM SSTs based on planktonic foraminifers from the Eastern Mediterranean and showed that the largest changes, by about 6-8oC, occurred in the Aegean Sea, with more pronounced anomalies during the summer months. The LGM general circulation models (GCMs) showed comparable temperature decreases in southeastern Europe (~8-11oC; Barron et al., 2004), and Anatolia (~10-12oC; Robinson et al., 2006). The temperature reconstructions from rock glaciers on Pindus Mountains indicate 8-9oC colder conditions before the LGM (Hughes et al., 2003). 86 In contrast to the consensus regarding LGM temperatures, there is no clear agreement regarding moisture levels during the LGM. Cold steppe biomass and virtual absence of trees (van Zeist et al., 1975) in Anatolia, and grassland/shrubland vegetation with varying proportions of Artemisia, Gramineae and chenopods (Elenga et al., 2000) in southern Europe and Africa were interpreted as indicative of drier LGM (Fontugne et al., 1999; Tzedakis, 2007). However, facies and geomorphic analyses of lakes in the inner Anatolia show that the lake levels were high both before (Roberts, 1983) and during the LGM (Kuzucuoğlu et al., 1999; Roberts et al., 1999; 2001), which is consistent with other lakes in Turkey (Roberts and Wright, 1993; Landmann and Reimer, 1996) and extensive paleolake systems along the Dead Sea Transform (Neev and Emery, 1967; Begin et al., 1974). Jones et al. (2007) studied Eski Acıgöl, a closed basin lake in Central Anatolia (80 km west of Mount Erciyes) (Fig. 1.a), using hydrological and isotope mass balance models and reported that LGM precipitation was 16-60% lower than today (Fig. 6). Soreq Cave data indicate drier conditions (between 20-50%) during the same time interval (2517 ka ago) (Bar-Matthews et al., 1997) (Fig. 6), however a recent study on d-excess values of fluid inclusions shows higher relative humidity (60%) compared to modern day conditions (45%) (Affek et al., 2008). The inconsistency between the lake level and pollen data created an incongruity, and many researchers attempted to explain it. Prentice et al. (1992) argued that the cold winters with enhanced winter precipitation and summer drought provided the high lake levels and the steppe conditions at the same time. However, the combination of steppe conditions and high lake stands were also interpreted as increased cloudiness and reduced evaporation to precipitation ratio coupled with 87 lowered winter temperatures and precipitation amounts (COHMAP Members, 1988; Kuzucuoğlu and Roberts, 1998). It is important to note that, although many lakes were extensive during the LGM, the overall trend after 24 ka was towards reduced the lake levels (Tzedakis, 2007). Because of these inconsistencies, we prefer not to rely on moisture reconstructions, but use only the paleotemperature data for LGM, which is less ambiguous, in order to narrow possible paleoclimate conditions inferred from glacial model. If, in the future, a better estimate of either of the two exists, one can use our glacier modeling results to re-reconstruct the past climates (inset of Fig. 5). There is a noticeable difference between the Eastern Mediterranean LGM SST or nearsea-level (NSL) temperature estimates and the temperature estimates at higher elevations inland. SST and NSL temperatures tend to be closer to modern values than those in uplands. In other words, continents surrounding the Mediterranean were cooled ~3oC more than the sea and coasts of the Mediterranean. The marked contrast in climate between coastal areas and interiors has also been noted previously (Jones et al., 2007; Enzel et al., 2008), and it is possibly due to the moderating effect of the Mediterranean. Southward-shifted westerlies to the latitudes of the Mediterranean (Florineth and Schlüchter, 2000) may also enhance the moderating effect by bringing relatively warmer air from the mid-Atlantic during the LGM. Thus, a cooling of about 6-10oC obtained from Soreq Cave (Fig. 1.a) and 5-8oC from LGM SST estimates in the Eastern Mediterranean should represent the minimum cooling at higher altitudes. Therefore, we used a temperature range of 8 to 11oC colder than today, in order to reconstruct the 88 paleoprecipitation totals on Mount Erciyes. A minimum cooling of 8oC brings our paleoprecipitation reconstructions to 1.2 times the modern values (which indicate slightly wetter conditions), and a maximum cooling of 11oC corresponds to 0.75 times the modern rate (drier conditions). Therefore, given the cooling in the range of 8-11oC, our glacier modeling results revealed that the LGM precipitation sums were somewhat closer to modern values, with a range of 20% more to 25% less than today (Fig. 6). With the modern precipitation amount, a cooling of about 9oC would be needed to produce LGM glaciers consistent with the glacial-geological record. 7.2. Late Glacial Stable climatic conditions during the LGM were followed by a series of melt water pulses in northwest Black Sea between 18 ka and 15.5 ka, due to the retreat of Eurasian ice sheets (Bahr et al., 2006) and Anatolian mountain glaciers. Glaciers started to retreat from mountains of Turkey around 21-18 ka ago, and readvanced by 16-14 ka ago, coincident with Heinrich event 1 (H1, ~16 ka ago) (Fig. 4). Paleoclimate reconstructions generally show cooler temperatures during the H1 in the Eastern Mediterranean. Alkenone-derived SSTs from the Northern Aegean Sea were as low as 14.5oC (Gogou et al., 2007) around 15 ka ago, which is 3.5-4.5oC colder than today. A sharp drop in temperature occurred 16 ka ago in Red Sea (Arz et al., 2003), and SSTs were generally low from 17 ka to 15 ka ago (Robinson et al., 2006). This cooling was related to the coldwater input into the Mediterranean from the North Atlantic Ocean (Cacho et al., 1999) 89 during Heinrich events that caused a reduction of evaporation and precipitation in the Eastern Mediterranean region (Kwiecien et al., 2009), leading to transient atmospheric cooling and an evaporation excess (Robinson et al., 2006). This hypothesis explains the lower lake levels in the Levantine (Bartov et al., 2003), Eastern Europe and Turkey (Harrison et al., 1996) during H1. Bar-Matthews et al. (1997) reported 3.5-4oC colder temperatures, and slightly increased (up to 1.5 times more) precipitation totals than today, in Soreq Cave. Reconstructed moisture conditions in Eski Acıgöl showed that Late Glacial interstade (14.5±1.0 ka) precipitation was 25-60% more than today (Jones et al., 2007) (Fig. 6). In summary, the Late Glacial interstade in the Eastern Mediterranean is considered to have been somewhat colder and slightly wetter than today. Our model suggests that in order to sustain wetter conditions, a maximum 6.4oC cooling is necessary to produce glaciers on Mount Erciyes at that time. A cooling of 3.5-4.5oC from SST estimates in Aegean Sea (Gogou et al., 2007) and 3.5-4oC from Soreq Cave speleothems should represent the minimum cooling at higher altitudes. Since we do not know the exact cooling on Mount Erciyes, we prefer to report a range of climatic conditions for Late Glacial as we did in LGM estimates. If we assume at least 4.5oC colder temperatures, the moisture levels will be 1.5 times higher than today. Given that the Late Glacial interstade was somewhat wetter than today, we are reporting a range of cooling between 4.5-6.4oC to sustain glaciers on Mount Erciyes during the Late Glacial interstade. 90 7.3. Early Holocene The Early Holocene appears to have been the wettest phase of the last 25 ka across much of the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean (Robinson et al., 2006). A wet Early Holocene paleoclimate in the Levantine region is supported by several proxies, including the increases in Pistacia and oak pollen (Rossignol-Strick, 1995) on Ghab Valley in northern Syria and paleosol deposits on the Israeli coast (Gvirtzman and Wieder, 2001). Humid conditions were also evident further west. High rainfall and cold winters in Sicily, Italy (Fig. 1.a) between 7.5 ka and 8.5 ka ago were reconstructed using stable isotopes in stalagmites (Frisia et al., 2006), and in lacustrine carbonates (Zanchetta et al., 2007). BarMatthews et al. (1997) suggested that Early Holocene (7-10 ka ago) was almost twice as wet as today (Fig. 6) and 3-3.5oC colder. D-excess data from Soreq Cave speleothems indicate significantly higher relativity humidity (70%) between 7.2 ka and 10 ka ago (Affek et al., 2008). Many Mediterranean lakes returned to high levels (Harrison et al., 1996) after a regression during Younger Dryas (Frumkin et al., 1994). A combined study of Lake Zeribar, Lake Van and Eski Acıgöl (Jones and Roberts, 2008) suggested that the first half of the Holocene was wetter than today. They were isotopically depleted relative to recent millennium, which was interpreted as the change in regional water balance (Roberts et al., 2008). A humid Early Holocene climate was also supported in central Anatolia by high lake levels and isotopic records. Isotopic analysis on Eski Acıgöl indicates that Early Holocene (11.0±0.5 ka) was up to 40% wetter than today (Fig. 6) (Jones et al., 2007). Lake Van, in eastern Anatolia, had experienced high lake stands 91 during that time frame (Landmann and Reimer, 1996; Wick et al., 2003). Stable isotope data in Lake Gölhisar (Fig. 1.a), revealed that the Early Holocene (between ca. 10.6 ka and 8.9 ka ago) was more humid than today (Eastwood et al., 2007). The published proxy data consistently suggest that the Early Holocene climate was wetter than today. If we assume that the moisture conditions were two times higher than they are today, as suggested by Bar-Matthews et al. (1997), our model requires a 2.1oC cooling to produce the Aksu Valley glacier. If the precipitation amount was same as today, the required cooling is 4.9oC. Since we do not know the exact humidity levels in the Early Holocene, here we are reporting a cooling between 2.1oC and 4.9oC, which is necessary to sustain wetter conditions to support Early Holocene glaciers on Mount Erciyes (Fig. 6). Remarkable advances of Early Holocene glaciers on Aladağlar (Zreda et al., 2009), Mount Erciyes and Durmitor Massif of Montenegro (Hughes and Woodward, 2008) are showing that the climate was unstable than previously thought during the interglacial Early Holocene. 7.4. Late Holocene The recent glacier on Mount Erciyes was interpreted as the remnant of the late Holocene glacial advance by Erinç (1952), with terminal moraines located along the front of the retreating glacier reflecting phases of glacial regeneration and expansion in a cooler and wetter climate than today. However, he did not give a quantitative value for the past 92 climate for that time interval. Lake levels were high at this time in the Levant (Frumkin et al., 1994), but low in Iberia Peninsula, Balkans and Turkey (Harrison et al., 1996). Higher δ18O and δ13C values for the second half of the Holocene in Lake Gölhisar indicate generally drier conditions than in the period before 5.1 ka (Eastwood et al., 2007). During the Late Holocene (1.5±1.0 ka ago), Jones et al. (2007) reported that precipitation totals in Eski Acıgöl approached the modern values and reported a range between 12% wetter and 13% drier than today (Fig. 6). Clumped isotope thermometry data in conjunction with d-excess values from Soreq Cave speleothems show similar moisture range, but colder conditions (up to 4oC) than modern (Affek et al., 2008). A 10% deficit of precipitation (Jones et al., 2007) would bring our temperature reconstruction for the Late Holocene to 3oC cooler than today. Precipitation amounts the same as today would imply 2.6oC cooler temperatures on Mount Erciyes. On the other hand, 10% wetter conditions would make Late Holocene temperature 2.4oC colder than today (Fig. 6). 8. Validation of glacier model using the retreat of the present glacier during the past century The recent glacier is on the steep slope (37o) of the northern face of the peak of Mount Erciyes (3917 m) (Fig. 7). It starts with deep crevasses below the peak at the elevation of 3650 m. Its upper surface was clear during our visits in late summer months, and the glacier could be seen from a distance of several kilometers (Fig. 2). Our latest close 93 examination in 2008 showed the glacier occupying an area of 0.05 km2 with a length of 260 m, and its lower margin at 3450 m. The lower part of the glacier at 3450-3480 m was covered by debris. Since Penther’s first visit to the mountain in 1902, different scientists reported that the glacier was retreating (Fig. 7). In Penther’s work (Penther, 1905), the glacier was reported to be 700 m long, and descending down to the elevation of 3100 m. However, marginal elevation of the glacier does not match the given length of the glacier on current topographic maps. Penther (1905, p. 25) reported the peak of the mountain 87 m lower than today, possibly because his altimeter readings were inaccurate. If we correct the glacier tongue by this amount, the lower margin of the glacier will be at 3180 m. Bartsch (1930, 1935) visited Mount Erciyes in 1930 and recorded the glacier tongue at the elevation of 3250 m. 20 years later, Erinç (1952) measured the length of the glacier as 550 m, and the glacier lower margin at 3300 m, and mentioned that its terminus part was heavily loaded with ablation moraines mixed with ice. Erinç used Penther’s measurement and calculated the glacial retreat rate of 3 m per year during the first 50 years of the 20th century. Klaer (1962) and Messerli (1964) reported that the glacier retreated to 3350 m (in 1958) and 3380 m (in 1962), respectively. Güner and Emre (1983) reported glacier length of 380 m and its margin at 3400 m. In August 2001, the glacier was 300 m long and its lower terminus at 3420 m (Sarıkaya et al., 2003). The latest examination of the glacier, in August 2008, revealed that it retreated to 3450 m. 94 We calculated the retreat rate of the Erciyes glacier using the historical measurements collected from published works since 1902. The glacier length decreased by 150 m in the first half of the century (between 1902 and 1950), giving a retreat rate of 3.1 m per year (Erinç, 1952), and 290 m in the second half (between 1950 and 2008), giving a rate of 5 m per year. Accelerating retreat of the Erciyes glacier is consistent with the behavior of other glaciers around the world (Oerlemans, 2005). The overall retreat rate of the glacier since 1902 is 4.2 m per year. If the rate of retreat observed in the past century continues, the glacier will disappear by 2070. Since we have an observed record of recent glacier on Erciyes, we used this opportunity to test our glacier model by simulating the recession of the Aksu glacier. As a starting point, modern temperature was dropped by 2.6oC to match the maximum position of the Late Holocene moraines, and the precipitation amount was kept constant. Then, for the last 250 years, we increased the temperature at a constant rate to match the observed glacier retreat rate (Fig. 8). The best match is a warming between 0.9 and 1.2oC per century, which is consistent with the global warming rate, reported in the IPCC (2007) report. This finding shows that our model works well for the recent glacier, and suggests that it should also work well for past glaciers. 95 9. Discussion and conclusion Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of moraines on Mount Erciyes have provided new information on Late Quaternary glacial history of Turkey. Glaciers on Mount Erciyes advanced in four glacial stages. The most extensive advance ended between 21.2±1.6 ka and 22.4±1.4 ka ago in the Aksu Valley and 20.4±1.5 ka ago in the Üçker Valley. It correlates with the broadly defined global LGM. Glaciers readvanced by 14.1±1.3 ka ago and again by 9.6±0.9 ka ago in the Aksu Valley and, consistently, 15.2±2.0 ka ago and 9.2±0.9 ka ago in Üçker Valley. Glaciers readvanced once more by 3.8±0.4 ka ago in the Aksu Valley. The recent glacier, located on the northern slope of the peak, is a remnant of the LIA glaciers; it is retreating at a rate consistent with the behavior of other glaciers around the world. The glaciation trend in Mount Erciyes consists of general shrinkage, interrupted with phases of re-expansion since the LGM. Recent cosmogenic exposure ages of past glacial activity from different mountains of Turkey (Akçar et al., 2007; 2008; Zahno et al., 2006; 2007; 2009; Sarıkaya et al., 2008 and this study) indicate consistent timing of local LGM, coinciding with the global LGM. However, Late Glacial advances in central and western mountains (Erciyes, Sandıras and Dedegöl Mountains) of Turkey occurred a few thousand years earlier than in northeastern Kaçkar Mountains. This might be due to local climatic effects at that time. An unusual Early Holocene glaciation is evident only in south-central Anatolian mountains (Mount Erciyes and Aladağlar), and dates to 9 ka. 96 Early Holocene glaciation was also recorded in Montenegro (Hughes and Woodward, 2008), but it is still unclear whether these records represent a wider region or are limited to their localities. Neoglacial and LIA advances are present on Mount Erciyes, but are absent from other Turkish mountains (Akçar et al., 2007). Modeling of glacier mass balance shows that interior Turkey during the LGM was 811oC colder than today and moisture level were somewhat similar to modern values, with a range of 20% more to 25% less than today. Further debate exists in terms of interpretation of LGM climate from glacial records in other Turkish mountains. Akçar et al. (2007) argued that the advances of glaciers in Kaçkar Mountains were parallel with the altered position of Polar Front Jets which resulted in colder and drier conditions over northern Anatolia. They suggested that the main accumulation of ice should have occurred during the winter months, with lowered summer insolation to sustain glaciers. Ceased moisture take-up from ice-growth cold Black Sea and prevailing periglacial conditions surrounding the Black Sea may also produced drier conditions on the northeastern part of the country. On the other hand, Sarıkaya et al. (2008) reconstructed wetter conditions on Mount Sandıras, on the southwest coast of Turkey, during the LGM, based on glacier-climate model and temperature proxies around the Eastern Mediterranean. These two scenarios appear to be at variance. However it is possible that drier and wetter conditions could coexist and regional mass balances and glacier dynamics could have varied across the great distances (Hughes and Woodward, 2008). Furthermore, it is likely that the proximity of Mount Sandıras to the moisture sources 97 (Sarıkaya et al., 2008) and local convective precipitation produced by unstable lower troposphere due to the anomalously steep vertical temperature gradients in the central and eastern Mediterranean may produce wetter conditions on the Mediterranean coasts (Kuhlemann et al., 2008). Paleosol sequences on the Israeli coast (Gvirtzman and Wieder, 2000) and clumped thermometry data from Soreq Cave (Affek et al., 2008) support the wetter conditions. Indeed, LGM GCMs revealed that most of the modeled precipitation occurred adjacent to the coastal strips of the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly during the winter months (Robinson et al., 2006). This implies that a marked moisture gradient existed between the coastal and interior Mediterranean during the LGM. The GCM output indicates that much of that winter precipitation over the Anatolian uplands falls as snow, and is then released in a major spring thaw (Robinson et al., 2006) which probably fed the lowland lakes that appear high during the LGM. The analysis of Late Glacial advance suggests that 4.5-6.4oC of cooling and up to 50% wetter conditions are necessary to sustain glaciers on Mount Erciyes. Early Holocene glaciers were developed under a climate that was colder (2.1oC to 4.9oC) and up to twice as wet as today. Late Holocene advance occurred under 2.4oC to 3oC cooler temperatures and similar precipitation totals as today. These results are approximately within the range of other paleoproxies in the Eastern Mediterranean (Fig. 6). Our overall paleoclimate reconstructions show a general trend of warming for the last 22 ka, and an increase of moisture until Early Holocene, and a decrease after that time. Between 1902 and 2008 the Erciyes glacier has retreated approximately 290 m in elevation, and its length decreased 98 by 440 m. The retreat rate has accelerated after 1950. Modeling the glacier retreat revealed a warming rate of 0.9-1.2oC per century. These glacier retreat rates and warming trends are consistent with the warming observed in the past century (IPCC, 2007), indicating that the size and position of the Erciyes glacier are good proxies for climate change. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the US National Science Foundation (Grant 0115298) and by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) (Grant 101Y002 for field works and Grant 107Y069 for cosmogenic dating). We are grateful to Chris Zweck (University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ) for his help in glacier modeling. We thank Kemal Akpınar and Bülent Akıl (General Directorate of İller Bankası, Ankara, Turkey) for field assistance, and Erdal Şen (Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey) for sharing his knowledge of the volcanology of Mount Erciyes and for field assistance. We also thank Tim Corley (University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ) for his help in the preparation of ion exchange columns. We thank editor Neil Roberts and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments. 99 References Affek, H.P., Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Matthews, A. and Eiler, J.M., 2008. Glacial/interglacial temperature variations in Soreq cave speleothems as recorded by 'clumped isotope' thermometry. Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta 72 (22), 5351-5360. Akçar, N., Schlüchter, C., 2005. Paleoglaciation in Anatolia: a schematic review and first results. Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 55, 102-121. Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schlüchter, C., 2007. 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The Theoretical Basis of ACE, an Age Calculation Engine for Cosmogenic Nuclides. Quaternary Geochronology (in review). 124 FIGURES AND TABLES 125 126 Fig. 1. (from previous page) a) Location map of Mount Erciyes (white triangle) and places discussed in the text (IAp: Italian Appennines, Si: Sicily, D: Durmitor Massif, Montenegro, Pn: Pindus Mountains, O: Olympus, P: Pirin Mountains, S: Mount Sandıras, G: Gölhisar Lake, U: Uludağ, De: Mount Dedegöl, EAc: Eski Acigöl, Al: Aladağlar, So: Soreq Cave, K: Kaçkar Mountains, C: Mount Cilo, A: Mount Ağrı (Mt. Ararat). b) Map of glacial valleys of Mount Erciyes. Ice flow line is shown by dotted line; c) Lower Aksu Valley, d) Upper Aksu Valley, e) Üçker Valley and their glacial deposits. Sample locations are shown by white circles with sample numbers. Moraine crests are shown by white lines. Moraines: LGM: Last Glacial Maximum; LG: Late Glacial; EH: Early Holocene; LH: Late Holocene. Outwash deposits: LGM Ow: Last Glacial Maximum Outwash; EH Ow: Early Holocene Outwash; LH Ow: Late Holocene Outwash; R Ow: Recent Outwash. RG: Rock Glacier and G: Glacier. 127 Fig. 2. Sample ER01-12 and the LGM left lateral moraine in the lower Aksu Valley. The Late Holocene outwash plain and the Erciyes glacier are on the left and in the background of the picture, respectively. 128 Fig. 3. Sample ER01-23 and the Early Holocene moraine overlain by the Late Holocene terminal moraine in the right tributary of the Aksu Valley. Ak su V. Üç ke r Ka V. r ta l NW Lake V. V. Ka vro nV Ve . rçe nik Mu V. slu U lu V . da g Ha ce rV . 129 Mount Erciyes samples 0 (a) GISP 2 (c) Üçker Valley (b) Aksu Valley 0 (d) Turkey ? M 5 5 8.2 cold event M M ? Age, ka Younger Dryas Bølling- 15 ? M Allerød ? M H1 10 ? 15 M ? Last Glacial M Maximum 20 M M ? H2 25 EH LH LGM LG EH s. Mt as dir çka r Cl samples Ka s 36 .S an o Reconstructed temp. C .E rci ye -50 Mt -40 Mt -30 30 ö U lu l da g Ala da gla r LG eg LGM 30 .D ed 25 Mt 20 Age, ka M 10 Fig. 4. a) Reconstructed air temperatures from the GISP 2 ice core in Greenland (Alley, 2000) and comparison of cosmogenic exposure ages from the b) Aksu and c) Üçker Valleys of Mount Erciyes. Samples excluded from the moraine age calculations were not plotted. LGM: Last Glacial Maximum (triangles); LG: Late Glacial (squares); EH: Early Holocene (circles); LH: Late Holocene (diamonds). Open circles and diamonds indicate samples from outwash deposits of EH and LH, respectively. d) Comparison of maximum extents of the Late Quaternary glaciations of Turkey. Timing of maximum glaciations is indicated as capital letter M, wherever possible. Vertical gray bars indicate possible range of ages from the Kartal Lake and Northwest Valleys of Mount Sandıras (Sarıkaya et al., 2008); the Kavron (Akçar et al., 2007) and Verçenik Valleys (Akçar et al., 2008) of the Kaçkarlar Mountains; the Muslu Valley of Mount Dedegöl (Zahno et al., 2006; 2007), Uludağ (Zahno et al., 2009) and the Hacer Valley of Aladağlar (Zreda et al., 2009). 130 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 3 4 1.5 6 km 6 8 2 1.0 km) 5 1 0.5 0 0.1 0 2 2.0 4 10 12 14 16 18 20 o Wetter conditions Temperature decrease, C (1.3 LH 1.5 ) km Precipiation multiplier (5.8 2.5 LGM m) 3.6 k LG ( m) 2.5 k EH ( 3.0 Precipiation multiplier 3.5 1.0 Drier conditions Modern precipitation line Today's conditions (~0.2 km) 0.5 Zero line (No glacier) 0.1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Temperature decrease, oC Fig. 5. Modeled length of the Aksu Valley glaciers during their maximum extents for Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), Late Glacial (LG), Early Holocene (EH) and Late Holocene (LH) as a function of temperature and precipitation changes from those of today. The thick lines with full circles, which indicate boundary conditions from the proxy data, show possible reconstructions of paleoclimate suggested by this study. Inset shows the full model results. 131 Fig. 6. Summary of paleoclimate reconstructions proposed by this study (black boxes) and comparison with other proxy records in the region; Eski Acıgöl (dark gray) (based on Jones et al., 2007) and Soreq Cave (light gray) (based on Bar-Matthews et al., 1997). Dimensions boxes; width: 1 sigma uncertainties on proposed ages, height: paleoprecipitation reconstructions. Numbers on top and bottom of the boxes are paleotemperature reconstructions proposed by this study. Vertical axis shows relative precipitation normalized to the present. Grey dashed lines between boxes are indicative only and are not based on analytical results. 132 Fig. 7. Observed retreat of the Erciyes glacier since 1902 from historical data (1902: Penther (1905); 1930: Bartsch (1935); 1950: Erinç (1952); 1958: Klaer (1962); 1962: Messerli (1964); 1983: Güner and Emre (1983); 2001: Sarıkaya et al. (2003); 2008: this study). Empty circles on the pictures are points of references to compare photos. Dotted line is the center line along which the glacier length is measured. 133 1.4 Glacier length (km) 1.2 1.0 0.9oC/century 0.8 1.2oC/century 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 300 200 100 0 Years before 2000 Fig. 8. Modeled retreat of the Erciyes glacier under constant warming rates. Dots are observation points (from Fig. 7) and their linear fit is shown by the straight line. m k i h g f e d c b a 3 3 2 3 2.5 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 1 2 1 4 Üçker Valley ER01-39 ER01-40 ER01-41 ER01-43 ER01-44 ER01-45 ER01-46 ER01-47 ER01-48 ER01-49 ER01-51 ER01-52 ER01-53 ER01-55 ER01-56 ER01-57 ER01-64 38.535 38.535 38.534 38.538 38.540 38.540 38.539 38.535 38.535 38.534 38.534 38.538 38.538 38.534 38.534 38.534 38.532 38.543 38.543 38.543 38.557 38.559 38.559 38.559 38.557 38.556 38.555 38.555 38.553 38.553 38.556 38.546 38.546 38.545 38.545 38.545 38.545 38.545 38.546 38.546 38.546 38.561 38.561 38.557 (°N) 35.468 35.468 35.473 35.483 35.486 35.486 35.486 35.489 35.489 35.490 35.495 35.502 35.501 35.499 35.499 35.501 35.488 35.434 35.434 35.434 35.423 35.422 35.422 35.422 35.421 35.423 35.422 35.423 35.421 35.421 35.417 35.439 35.440 35.440 35.440 35.444 35.444 35.444 35.441 35.441 35.440 35.423 35.423 35.426 (°E) 3107 3101 3053 2909 2849 2849 2849 2859 2855 2839 2781 2603 2624 2693 2690 2657 2868 3056 3056 3056 2690 2673 2673 2673 2671 2693 2697 2711 2766 2756 2703 3081 3091 3102 3102 3229 3229 3229 3118 3101 3070 2693 2693 2764 (m) 0.5 0.5 2 1 0.5 1.2 0.8 1 1.2 0.8 0.5 1.5 0.5 0.8 0.2 1 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.4 1 0.5 0.6 1 0.8 0.7 1.5 2.5 0.6 0.6 1.5 1.3 0.4 1.5 1 2 2 2 1.5 0.7 1 1 0.8 0.4 0.978 0.978 0.987 0.994 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.998 0.997 0.997 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.957 0.957 0.957 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.993 0.993 0.993 0.984 0.984 0.984 0.984 0.983 0.983 0.983 0.984 0.984 0.984 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.869 0.870 1 0.961 0.914 0.983 0.948 0.966 0.982 0.949 0.924 1 0.944 0.966 0.899 0.984 0.935 0.864 1 0.864 0.982 0.937 0.948 0.983 0.968 0.957 1 1 1 1 1 0.967 0.858 0.980 0.934 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.979 1 1 0.982 0.966 0.914 Boulder Topography Snow e height correction correction f g factor factor (m) (-) (-) CaO Fe2O3 K2O Major elements h MgO MnO Na2O P2O5 SiO2 TiO CO2 15.48 14.87 15.64 14.96 15.92 15.42 14.94 15.64 15.82 15.61 16.01 15.07 15.21 15.52 15.68 15.42 15.95 16.24 16.53 16.42 16.07 16.05 15.20 15.33 15.94 15.65 15.53 15.64 16.69 16.02 16.56 15.41 15.20 14.89 15.43 15.77 15.90 15.69 14.96 14.97 15.99 15.76 14.81 14.99 4.12 3.94 3.91 4.25 4.36 4.42 3.92 3.70 3.96 3.87 3.94 3.53 3.81 3.89 3.96 4.10 3.95 4.85 4.52 4.29 4.51 3.53 4.10 3.91 4.55 4.35 4.30 4.39 4.84 4.51 4.85 3.93 3.91 3.73 4.41 4.40 4.06 4.19 3.66 3.80 4.51 4.09 3.79 4.71 3.96 3.53 3.57 3.63 4.24 3.87 3.77 3.52 3.53 3.50 3.17 3.62 3.35 3.41 3.47 3.49 3.45 4.14 2.85 3.41 3.79 3.84 3.96 3.74 4.13 3.83 3.88 4.04 4.21 4.01 3.93 3.25 3.40 3.25 4.03 4.00 3.21 3.79 3.35 3.33 4.09 3.44 3.86 3.29 2.15 2.17 2.21 2.19 2.16 2.18 2.52 2.43 2.27 2.24 2.28 2.56 2.31 2.20 2.30 2.13 2.39 2.15 1.44 2.18 2.19 2.50 2.27 2.50 2.13 2.30 2.22 2.24 1.90 2.25 2.09 2.42 2.44 2.26 2.22 2.22 2.25 2.21 2.19 2.29 2.14 2.09 2.44 2.07 1.85 1.61 1.64 1.99 1.92 1.92 1.88 1.49 1.57 1.58 1.18 1.62 1.50 1.51 1.67 1.63 1.59 2.26 0.85 1.14 2.03 0.65 1.80 1.77 2.14 1.87 1.94 1.98 1.91 2.17 1.78 1.51 1.62 1.48 1.96 2.00 1.42 1.62 1.68 1.58 2.07 1.66 1.83 2.23 0.084 0.058 0.056 0.061 0.066 0.065 0.066 0.049 0.051 0.053 0.049 0.053 0.053 0.051 0.056 0.055 0.052 0.070 0.024 0.051 0.066 0.031 0.055 0.061 0.068 0.066 0.062 0.068 0.060 0.062 0.067 0.052 0.056 0.052 0.066 0.069 0.047 0.060 0.059 0.056 0.069 0.052 0.067 0.069 3.65 3.50 3.80 3.75 3.94 3.55 3.87 3.81 4.05 3.96 3.91 3.88 3.63 3.95 4.00 3.74 4.00 3.79 3.29 4.02 3.75 3.72 3.74 3.77 3.90 3.80 3.82 3.75 4.07 3.33 3.96 3.84 3.72 3.67 3.70 3.87 3.89 3.84 3.54 3.72 3.90 3.08 3.69 3.49 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.07 0.11 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.14 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.16 0.06 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13 66.72 69.08 67.62 66.05 65.92 67.15 68.03 67.75 68.12 67.57 67.49 68.10 68.53 67.38 67.11 67.26 67.72 64.54 66.63 66.56 66.93 67.71 66.25 67.77 66.50 67.03 66.23 67.31 64.85 64.82 65.07 68.38 69.23 69.67 67.62 67.09 68.78 67.59 67.88 69.79 67.25 67.08 67.95 67.28 0.56 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.61 0.53 0.52 0.47 0.50 0.49 0.45 0.50 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.48 0.49 0.65 0.65 0.71 0.54 0.55 0.55 0.51 0.55 0.50 0.52 0.56 0.75 0.68 0.69 0.43 0.46 0.44 0.56 0.55 0.45 0.57 0.44 0.47 0.57 0.45 0.50 0.42 1.24 1.52 0.40 1.24 0.79 0.73 0.66 1.29 0.69 0.63 0.66 0.94 0.23 0.73 0.38 0.57 0.75 0.65 2.49 0.92 0.67 1.94 1.03 0.54 0.35 1.29 0.52 0.00 0.73 2.19 0.52 0.55 0.23 0.80 0.25 0.49 0.57 0.69 2.02 0.40 0.33 2.82 0.69 1.60 (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) Al2O3 26.4 359.7 26.0 93.6 277.6 151.7 25.9 29.6 28.6 30.8 32.1 26.2 29.1 25.1 28.7 26.5 31.1 51.8 236.7 50.0 34.8 119.8 101.5 10.5 51.8 542.9 34.5 33.3 121.6 510.3 228.4 37.3 137.0 61.5 220.1 253.5 162.7 24.7 46.4 80.7 139.9 141.6 92.3 40.0 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± (ppm) Cl i 0.2 2.5 0.2 0.1 0.4 5.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.2 4.0 0.2 1.7 2.8 0.9 0.2 0.7 1.0 0.1 0.4 3.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 3.0 1.6 0.1 1.0 0.4 2.0 1.5 1.1 0.2 0.2 0.6 2.3 5.0 0.2 0.5 Trace elements k Sm Gd U Th 11.50 18.50 11.30 23.10 19.70 24.10 21.40 17.20 8.80 10.20 14.79 17.30 22.10 13.30 10.50 19.70 15.40 17.85 29.20 13.80 23.30 15.50 14.80 10.92 14.10 20.90 6.98 20.00 19.77 19.40 13.70 19.26 28.00 21.30 23.90 23.50 20.50 15.30 20.90 19.10 15.50 27.40 23.74 28.10 3.10 3.40 2.70 3.60 3.20 3.70 2.90 2.78 2.50 2.60 2.56 3.00 3.00 2.50 2.40 2.50 2.80 3.02 3.80 3.10 3.00 2.50 2.90 2.87 2.60 3.80 2.53 2.70 2.33 3.90 3.10 3.01 3.30 2.80 3.40 3.10 3.20 2.60 3.29 3.20 3.00 3.40 3.27 3.10 3.00 3.20 2.60 3.40 3.00 3.10 2.70 2.48 2.40 2.60 2.18 3.00 2.50 2.30 2.40 2.10 2.70 2.81 3.80 3.10 2.80 2.20 2.80 2.57 2.60 3.60 2.37 2.30 2.18 3.80 2.80 2.66 2.90 2.80 2.80 3.10 3.10 2.70 2.85 3.20 2.90 3.10 2.81 2.90 3.80 3.80 4.40 3.80 3.20 3.70 4.30 4.13 4.00 4.00 3.95 4.40 4.30 3.90 4.00 4.70 4.10 3.20 3.50 3.70 3.60 3.90 3.80 3.74 3.60 4.10 3.44 3.90 3.20 3.50 3.60 3.89 4.60 4.20 3.60 3.90 4.20 4.00 3.46 4.50 3.70 4.60 4.08 5.70 11.20 11.60 12.80 12.20 10.80 11.70 12.20 12.20 12.30 12.30 11.43 13.50 13.00 11.90 12.00 12.10 12.20 9.67 10.90 11.00 11.50 12.60 11.30 11.36 10.90 12.40 9.90 11.80 8.95 11.30 10.90 11.12 13.60 12.20 11.50 11.40 12.10 11.50 10.68 12.50 11.10 14.20 11.56 13.40 (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) B Water content of 0.5% and density of 2.6 g cm-3 were assumed for all samples. Temperature lapse rate of 6.36 oC km -1, sea-level air pressure of 1032.3 g cm-2 and sea-level temperature of 20.9 oC is assumed for all sample locations. Measured average sampled depth used for thickness correction. Decimal degrees from handheld GPS, nominal accuracy ±5 m. From handheld GPS, nominal accuracy ±15 m. Height of boulder from its embedded surface; measured or averaged/estimated when boulder irregular. Calculated from measurements of inclination to the horizon of the sample locations at 45o azimuthal increments using a hand-held clinometer and from measurements of surface slope (dip). Calculated by predicting the average annual snow cover on the top of boulders using the long term climate data from nearby meteorological stations. Major element concentrations are reported as oxides in weight percent (wt. %). The detection limits are 0.01%. Total Cl calculated from measurement of 35Cl/37Cl on spiked samples, de-spiked (i.e., converted to value in the rock), or measured by diffusion cells if not spiked. Trace element concentrations are in parts per million (ppm). The detection limits are 0.1 ppm. 36 The ratio Cl/Cl measured with accelerator mass spectrometry on spiked samples, de-spiked (i.e., converted to value in the original rock sample). 3 6 3 1.25 2.5 2.5 3 1.5 2 3 2.5 3.5 2 2 3 2 1.5 2 2 3 4 3 1 1.5 2 2 2 (cm) Thickness b Latitude c Longitude c Elevation d Aksu Valley ER01-01 ER01-02 ER01-03 ER01-04 ER01-05 ER01-06 ER01-07 ER01-08 ER01-09 ER01-10 ER01-11 ER01-12 ER01-13 ER01-14 ER01-15 ER01-16 ER01-17 ER01-18 ER01-19 ER01-20 ER01-21 ER01-22 ER01-23 ER01-24 ER01-25 ER01-26 ER01-27 Sample ID a Table 1. Attributes, local corrections to production rates, and geochemical and isotopic analytical data for samples from Mount Erciyes. 1100 182 784 910 761 624 1861 778 941 672 663 2631 1138 1213 1466 608 833 77 54 76 235 378 500 1271 136 114 707 169 589 186 553 1202 322 1247 349 113 160 618 1217 390 357 603 578 1655 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± -15 46 6 84 37 36 24 62 43 34 32 31 1475 94 191 431 446 59 142 8 13 29 22 23 163 18 12 32 15 27 6 44 55 16 52 13 8 18 129 62 17 16 29 28 76 (10 ) Cl/Cl m 36 134 36 Table 2. Cosmogenic Cl inventories, production rates, ages of boulders and mean ages of glacial landforms on Mount Erciyes. 36 Sample ID Surface Clcosmogenic 4 -1 (10 atoms g ) Production rate a -1 36 Cl boulder age -1 b Used? c (ka) (atoms g yr ) Landform age d (ka) Aksu Valley ER01-12 ER01-13 ER01-14 Left lateral moraine 116.4 138.8 203.4 ± ± ± 5.7 7.0 17.2 61.6 128.4 90.4 19.3 11.0 23.1 ± ± ± 0.9 0.6 2.0 1 0 1 20.7 ± 1.8 ext [2.2] ER01-25 ER01-26 ER01-27 Right lateral moraine 136.3 86.3 109.5 ± ± ± 8.6 4.5 5.3 63.1 53.0 44.5 22.2 16.6 25.3 ± ± ± 1.4 0.9 1.2 1 1 1 21.4 ± 2.6 ext [2.9] ER01-05 ER01-06 ER01-07 Right lateral moraine 69.7 81.5 22.0 ± ± ± 4.6 4.2 2.9 55.7 54.3 35.4 12.7 15.3 6.3 ± ± ± 0.8 0.8 0.8 1 1 0 14.1 ± 1.3 ext [1.5] ER01-15 ER01-16 ER01-17 ER01-18 ER01-22 Right Lateral moraine 74.2 67.4 126.4 120.3 93.7 ± ± ± ± ± 3.5 4.0 5.5 5.5 4.9 53.8 65.8 61.2 93.0 55.7 14.0 10.4 21.2 13.1 17.2 ± ± ± ± ± 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.9 1 1 0 1 1 13.7 ± 1.3 ext [1.5] ER01-23 ER01-24 Left lateral moraine 48.6 76.8 ± ± 2.5 4.3 56.2 73.3 8.7 10.6 ± ± 0.5 0.6 1 1 9.6 ± 0.9 ext [1.1] ER01-09 ER01-10 Outwash plain 77.5 39.9 ± ± 12.2 1.9 126.7 42.6 6.2 9.5 ± ± 1.0 0.5 1 1 8.7 ± 1.4 ext [1.5] ER01-19 ER01-20 ER01-21 Terminal moraine 36.8 35.2 24.4 ± ± ± 4.0 5.2 5.4 111.6 91.8 53.4 3.3 3.9 4.6 ± ± ± 0.4 0.6 1.0 1 1 1 3.8 ± 0.4 int [0.5] ER01-04 ER01-08 ER01-11 Outwash plain 12.1 9.3 7.9 ± ± ± 1.7 1.6 0.9 39.5 40.3 39.1 3.1 2.3 2.0 ± ± ± 0.4 0.4 0.2 1 1 1 2.5 ± 0.3 ext [0.3] ER01-01 ER01-02 ER01-03 Terminal moraine 4.6 12.2 3.9 ± ± ± 12.5 3.7 1.3 44.4 82.9 41.5 1.0 1.5 0.9 ± ± ± 2.8 0.5 0.3 0 1 1 1.2 ± 0.3 ext [0.3] ER01-43 ER01-44 ER01-45 ER01-46 Right lateral moraine 141.6 345.9 153.6 80.1 ± ± ± ± 6.0 17.2 8.4 2.8 63.9 102.8 74.4 45.3 22.8 35.0 21.2 18.1 ± ± ± ± 1.0 1.8 1.2 0.6 1 0 1 1 20.4 ± 1.5 ER01-52 ER01-53 ER01-55 ER01-56 ER01-57 Moraine complex 115.4 55.0 50.7 70.2 26.0 ± ± ± ± ± 65.7 4.7 8.2 21.2 21.1 42.0 36.9 38.1 38.7 36.4 28.3 15.2 13.5 18.5 7.2 ± ± ± ± ± 16.1 1.3 2.2 5.6 5.9 0 1 1 1 0 15.2 ± 2.0 ext [2.1] Moraine complex 47.9 93.2 33.1 37.3 43.5 33.4 34.5 42.0 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 2.1 5.0 3.7 2.2 1.7 1.7 1.8 3.1 43.7 116.2 47.7 43.2 43.6 41.4 40.0 42.9 11.1 8.1 7.0 8.7 10.1 8.1 8.7 9.9 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9.2 ± 0.5 ext [0.7] Üçker Valley ER01-39 ER01-40 ER01-41 ER01-47 ER01-48 ER01-49 ER01-51 ER01-64 a b ext [1.8] Effective total production rate of 36Cl integrated over the sample thickness. The uncertainties of boulder ages were given at the 1 sigma level and calculated by propagation of AMS reported analytical errors on 36Cl/Cl ratio and 20% uncertainty was assumed for the calculated nucleogenic component. c Indicates whether or not the boulder age was used for the calculation of landform age; 1: used, 0: not used. d Weighted average of boulder ages with uncertainties, at 1 sigma level, that are based on boulder-to-boulder variability and with total uncertainties which also include uncertainty on production rates of36Cl (in brackets; they should be used when comparing cosmogenic ages with ages obtained from other dating methods).Type of uncertainity is also shown; internal (due to the analytical errors), external (due to the spread of data). The larger of the two is reported. 135 136 APPENDIX D REMARKABLY EXTENSIVE EARLY HOLOCENE GLACIATION IN TURKEY Marek Zreda1, Attila Çiner2, Mehmet Akif Sarikaya1, Chris Zweck1, Serdar Bayarı2 1 Hydrology and Water Resources Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA 2 Geological Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey [In revision to be resubmitted to Geology] 137 Abstract Early Holocene moraines in the Taurus Mountains of south-central Turkey show that glaciers were extraordinarily large, typical of the last glacial maximum (LGM, 21 ka) rather than the interglacial Holocene, and that rates of glacier retreat and of temperature rise exceeded those of the past century. Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of seven moraines in one valley at altitudes between 1100 m and 3100 m above sea level range from 10.2 ± 0.2 ka to 8.6 ± 0.3 ka. During that time the equilibrium line altitude ascended 1430 m and the air temperature rose by 9°C. Deglaciation occurred in two phases. During the second, faster phase, which lasted 500 yr, the glacier length decreased at an average rate of 1700 m/century, implying a warming rate of 1.44°C/century. Accounting for a possible local amplification of the global climate signal and for the difference in the lengths of the glacial and modern temperature records, this rate exceeds the global warming trend of the past century, 0.6 ± 0.2°C, showing that natural causes can lead to fast and large climate changes, and that the magnitude and the rate of climate change observed in the past century are not unprecedented within the Holocene. If such extensive glaciation was common throughout the region, it might have slowed Neolithic migration out of the Fertile Crescent across the mountains, to the west, north and east. 138 1. Introduction After millenia of generally glacial but variable climate, the warming trend at the end of the Pleistocene epoch led to the establishment of a warm climate of the Holocene epoch (the last 11.6 ky). Ice-core data suggest that the Holocene was climatically stable (Dansgaard et al., 1993), but other paleoclimate proxy data (e.g., Bond et al., 1997; deMenocal et al., 2000) show clear variations. Understanding climatic changes during the Holocene provides long-term context for the assessment of the nature of the climate change today. The global temperature rise of the past century (Folland et al., 2001) could be considered unique within the Holocene under the assumption of a relatively stable climate of the Holocene (Dansgaard et al., 1993), but unexceptional under the assumption of large climatic variations (deMenocal et al., 2000). Additionally, understanding past climatic variations is critical for the study of human evolution, particularly the transition from nomadic to settled lifestyle and from hunting-gathering to farming, and the spread on early Indo-European languages. In this paper, we present an early Holocene glacialgeological record from south-central Turkey, from which we infer the magnitude and pace of glacial and climatic changes. Glaciers are not among the first things usually associated with Turkey. But glaciers do exist in Turkey today (Çiner, 2004), and, as noted first by Palgrave in 1872 (Palgrave, 1872), glacial-geological evidence shows that much bigger glaciers existed in Anatolia in the past, providing information on climate changes (Erinç, 1952). Mountain glaciers are 139 sensitive to changes in climate (Oerlemans, 2001) because their temperature is close to the melting point of ice (Nesje, 2005). Glaciers respond to various climatic perturbations, mainly of temperature and precipitation (Nesje, 2005; Ohmura et al., 1992). Variations of glacier size provide some of the clearest natural signals of climate change today (Nesje, 2005). By analogy, dating of moraines (deposits made by former glaciers) provides information on past climates. 2. Geologic Setting We dated moraines in the Aladağlar (in Turkish, ‘ala’ = ‘speckled’, ‘dağlar’ = ‘mountains’) of the Central Taurus Mountains of Turkey (Fig. 1). The Aladağlar bear conspicuous evidence of former glaciers (Klaer, 1962; Klimchouk et al., 2006; Tekeli et al., 1984). The highest part of the mountain range consists of Mesozoic carbonates (Tekeli et al., 1984) with extensive karst that limits surface drainage (Klimchouk et al., 2006). Former glaciers developed in cirques above 3000 m and flowed down deeply incised valleys to their marginal positions. Numerous morphological features record former glaciations in the Yedigöller (Seven Lakes) Plateau, a large depression just below the summits of the Aladağlar, and in the Hacer (Rock) Valley, a deep (up to 1400 m), Ushaped glacial valley, the largest in the Aladağlar (14 km long), located on the east side of the mountains (Fig. 1). Features of glacial erosion—cirques, glacially scoured bedrock, striations, trim lines, narrow jagged ridges and pyramidal peaks—are common in the Yedigöller area and in the upper valley, above 2000 m (Klimchouk et al., 2006). Features 140 of glacial deposition—moraines, glacial lakes and outwash deposits—are present at all elevations. In the Hacer Valley and in the Yedigöller Plateau we mapped seven moraines at elevations from ~3100 m to ~1100 m (A to G; Fig. 1; Table DR1). In the lower valley, the moraines are large, well preserved and bouldery, with limestone boulders reaching 15 m in diameter (Table DR2). In the upper valley and in the plateau, the moraines are smaller, and the boulders are less numerous and smaller than those in the lower valley. Glacial outwash deposits dominate the landscape near the mouth of the valley and merge with the fluvial sedimentary system below. 3. Methods We collected and analyzed 22 samples from seven moraines (A through G; Fig. 1; Table DR1, DR2 and DR3), of which 20 were boulders and two were glacially scoured bedrock outcrops. For each analyzed sample we calculated (Data Repository Items) a cosmogenic 36 Cl exposure age (Table DR1) and then averaged the individual ages to obtain moraine ages (Fig. 2; Table DR1). The averaging of individual cosmogenic ages is justified if their variance is small (Zreda et al., 1999), which indicates predepositional uniformity of clasts and postdepositional stability of the surface (Dzierzek and Zreda, 2007), and thus assures that all samples come from the same statistical distribution. We show in Fig. 2 and report in Table DR1 the larger of the two calculated errors of the mean: the internal error (based on the individual analytical errors; moraines A, D, E, F and G) and the 141 external error (based on the boulder-to-boulder spread; moraines B and C). This is the precision of the calculated moraine ages. The accuracy of 36 Cl ages depends on the accuracy of the cosmogenic production rate estimates, which has two components: the variability among the samples in the calibration data set, and the choice of a calibration data set if more than one exists. The random uncertainty of the production rates is added, using the square rule for variances, to the precision estimates, and is reported (in brackets) in Table DR1. This uncertainty should be used when comparing 36 Cl ages to those obtained using independent dating methods. Other available production rates (Data Repository Items), recomputed using the software used here (Data Repository Items), gave 36Cl ages that are 12% older and 13% younger than those calculated using our production rates (Table DR4); they provide upper and lower limits of 36Cl ages. Combinations of temperature and precipitation that could yield the glaciers in the Aladağlar between 10210 years ago and 8560 years ago were calculated with an ice flowline model (Data Repository Items). 4. Results and Discussions Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of the moraines range from 10210 ± 160 years at the bottom of the valley to 8560 ± 270 years on the high plateau (Fig. 2; Table DR1). They are 142 stratigraphically consistent and the age trends with altitude and distance from the summit are clear (Fig. 2a). Ages of five moraines have precision between 1.5% and 3.5%. The poorer precision obtained for moraines B (15%) and C (6.6%) is not critical because they are between well dated moraines A (3.2%) and D (3.5%), and the ages of moraines B and C fall on the trend line defined by moraines A and D (Fig. 2a). Possible reasons for the observed large spread in individual boulder ages, particularly in moraine B, include inheritance of 36 Cl from previous exposure episodes, making sample ages too old (possibly sample AL01-114), and erosion, boulder rolling and cover on boulder tops, all making ages too young (possibly sample AL01-116). Deglaciation of the Hacer Valley occurred in two phases (Fig. 2a). During the first phase, from 10210 years ago to 9060 years ago, the glacier was retreating at the average rate of 0.56 m/y vertically and 4.25 m/y horizontally. Between 9060 years ago and 8560 years ago, the deglaciation rates increased four-fold, to 2.65 m/y and 17.1 m/y, respectively. At face value, these rates fall in the range of modern short-term horizontal retreat rates of glaciers (Oerlemans, 2001) (Fig. 3a). But they are much higher than the modern rates when lengths of records are considered. Longer records have lower average deglaciation rates because periods of glacier readvances are more likely included in longer records. The longest historical record (450 years, Unterer Grindelwaldgletscher, Bernese Alps, Switzerland in ref. (Oerlemans, 2001)) has an average horizontal retreat rate of only 2 m/y (Fig.3a), less than one-eighth of that from Hacer Valley calculated for the time span of 500 years (9060 years ago to 8560 years ago). The average deglaciation rate for the 143 entire time interval between 10210 years ago and 8560 years ago is 8.4 m/y, which is approximately 25 times higher than the rate inferred by extrapolating historical records (Fig. 3a). These results show that deglaciation rates in early Holocene exceed by far those in recent centuries, suggesting that glacier retreat observed today is not unprecedentedly fast. Based on the observed retreat pattern, we calculated rates of change of the equilibrium line altitude (ELA; Fig. 2b) and of climate (Fig. 2c) that would result in the observed deglaciation rates. The ELA trend mimics that for the altitude of the terminal moraines, and changes from approximately 2080 m to 3510 m. The change of the ELA of approximately 1430 m is typical of the difference between the LGM and today (Mark et al., 2005), but is surprisingly high for the interglacial Holocene in which only small variations of glacier size are expected (Dahl et al., 2002). The large changes of the ELA (Fig. 2b) imply correspondingly large changes of temperature and/or precipitation (Fig. 2c): shrinking the glacier from its full extent (moraine G) to its smallest size (A) required a temperature increase of 9°C combined with precipitation decrease of 960 mm/y. Because the glacier is more sensitive to temperature changes than to precipitation changes (1°C is equivalent to 600 mm/y; Data Repository Items), the temperature result is robust. Such large variations of temperature were common during the LGM, but until now have not been reported for the Holocene, 144 which suggests that the early Holocene climate was more dynamic than previously thought. The average rate of change of temperature is 0.55°C/century for the entire duration of 1650 years, and 1.44°C/century for the last 500 years of the record. The first value is similar to the rate observed in the past century (Folland et al., 2001), but represents an average over 1650 years. The second value is much higher than the rate of temperature change observed today, and it is integrated over five times longer time. Two factors must be considered to compare the long-term warming rates in the Aladağlar to the shorter-term global warming rate observed today. First, a part of the calculated long-term value may be due to amplification of the global climate signal in high mountains that are in the zone of influence of NAO (Beniston, 2005). To account for this, the calculated value should be divided by a factor greater than one. In the European Alps today, this factor is three (Beniston, 2005), and it may be applicable to the Aladağlar because the two areas have similar responses to NAO forcing (Hurrell, 1995). Second, long-term rates are always lower than shorter-term rates (Fig. 3b) because long-term rates include possible cooling episodes. Thus, the rates calculated above should be multiplied by a factor greater than one. We calculated a factor of 2-3 by extrapolating the 149-year long global temperature trend to 500 years (Fig. 3b). Because these two corrections cancel each other, the high rate of temperature increase calculated for the early Holocene, 145 1.44°C/century, is probably correct, and can be used to compare with modern global warming trends. What environmental conditions caused the glaciation of the Aladağlar in the early Holocene? The area is in a mixed Mediterranean and continental climatic zone, with precipitation maximum in the winter (Özyurt, 2005). Moisture comes from the south and west, from the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Changes in paleoclimate were probably due to shifts in the position of westerly storm tracks, the extension of the tropical low-pressure system and of the Siberian high (Wick et al., 2003), possibly linked to the patterns of Arctic Oscillations (Arz et al., 2003) (essentially the same as North Atlantic Oscillation, NAO). Regional paleoclimatic reconstructions converge on a climate that was wetter (Arz et al., 2003; Bar-Matthews et al., 1997; Collins et al., 2005; Fontugne et al., 1999; Roberts et al., 2001; Wick et al., 2003) and colder (Aksu et al., 2002; Bar-Matthews et al., 1997) than today. We hypothesize that enhanced moisture delivery and reduced temperature were due to variations in the dominant westerly wind flow, driven by the pressure difference between the Icelandic Low and the Azores High, whose measure is the NAO index (Hurrell, 1995). A positive NAO index represents above normal pressure over the central North Atlantic, and low pressure across the high latitudes of the North Atlantic. A high NAO index winter is associated with storm tracks in the North Atlantic leading to strong westerly flow and increased precipitation over Scandinavia. In contrast a low NAO index 146 causes a more southerly storm track, increasing winter precipitation and lowering temperature in the Eastern Mediterranean (Beniston, 2005; Cullen et al., 2002; Hurrell, 1995). In addition to short-term variations, the NAO index displays century-scale variations (Beniston, 2005), which shows that NAO can operate on geological time scales. In the early Holocene, approximately doubled precipitation (Arz et al., 2003; BarMatthews et al., 2000), increased surface runoff (Collins et al., 2005), high lake levels (Wick et al., 2003), decreased sea salinity (Rossignol-Strick, 1999), and sea-level temperature lower than today (Aksu et al., 2002) suggest a possibility of prolonged negative NAO conditions (Cullen et al., 2002) that might have lead to glaciation of the Aladağlar. While a negative NAO phase makes the eastern Mediterranean climate cooler and wetter today, are NAO-induced changes big enough to generate glaciers consistent with the glacial record from the Aladağlar? The answer to this question has yet to emerge. Also unknown is whether the observed record is representative of a wider area or limited to the Aladağlar. If the observed record is an isolated occurrence, which we think unlikely because such large temperature changes cannot exist in isolation, it would indicate anomalous local climatic conditions, and imply that climate was spatially highly heterogeneous. If, in contrast, it is part of a broader pattern, which we favor, it would mean that early Holocene climate in the region was more variable than hitherto thought. These glacial conditions coexisted with Neolithic cultures of the Fertile Crescent, and might have played a role in human migration, by blocking passages through mountains. 147 Our calculations show early Holocene ELAs as low as 2080 m and ice margins as low as 1100 m in Aladağlar. Similarly low ice margins elsewhere in the Taurus and Zagros mountains could have made an impassable physical barrier between the cradle of civilization (Iraq, Syria) and the areas to the west, north and east. The deglaciation ages reported here coincide broadly with the spread of agriculture out of the Fertile Crescent across the Taurus Mountains 8000-9000 years ago (Diamond and Bellwood, 2003), and with the dispersal of early Indo-European languages 7800-9800 years BP (Gray and Atkinson, 2003). 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Oerlemans, J., 2001, Glaciers and climate change: Lisse, Balkema, 148 p. 152 Ohmura, A., Kasser, P., and Funk, M., 1992, Climate at the equilibrium line of glaciers: Journal of Glaciology, v. 38, p. 397-411. Özyurt, N.N., 2005, Investigation of the groundwater residence time distribution in the Aladag (Kayseri-Adana, Turkey) karstic aquifer [PhD thesis]: Ankara (Turkey), Hacettepe University. Palgrave, W.G., 1872, Vestiges of the glacial period in north-eastern Anatolia: Nature, v. 5, p. 444-445. Roberts, N., Reed, J.M., Leng, M.J., Kuzucuoglu, C., Fontugne, M., Bertaux, J., Woldring, H., Bottema, S., Black, S., Hunt, E., and Karabiyikoglu, M., 2001, The tempo of Holocene climatic change in the eastern Mediterranean region: new high-resolution crater-lake sediment data from central Turkey: Holocene, v. 11, p. 721-736. 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Zreda, M., England, J., Phillips, F., Elmore, D., and Sharma, P., 1999, Unblocking of the Nares Strait by Greenland and Ellesmere ice-sheet retreat 10,000 years ago: Nature, v. 398, p. 139-142. 154 FIGURES 155 Fig. 1 Glacial deposits in the Yedigöller Plateau and the Hacer Valley (a), within the Aladağlar (b; Ç - Çamardı; Y - Yahyalı), southcentral Turkey (c; A - Ankara), and location of samples for cosmogenic 36 Cl dating. Separate moraines are labeled from A (highest elevation) to G (lowest). Central flow line is shown in segments that are one kilometer long (a). Moraines outside the Hacer Valley are shown as thick lines (b; (after Klaer, 1962)). 156 Fig. 2 (a) Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of moraines, terminus altitude and length of the former glaciers. Symbol size (area) is inversely proportional to the uncertainty of 36 Cl age (the largest symbol represents 1.6% error, the smallest 15% error). (b) Glacier length and ELA from inverse modeling of Hacer Valley glaciers. The length function (line) matches the moraine positions (circles). (c) Temperature and precipitation changes that produced the best fit of the ice flowline model to glacier length data. July temperature is shown; temperature change is the same through the year. Annual precipitation is shown; most of it falls during winter and spring, and the fraction of winter precipitation is assumed constant in time. 157 Fig. 3 (a) Average rate of change of glacier length decreases with the length of record. Open triangles are observed glacier length changes (Oerlemans, 2001); filled triangles and fitted line define the maximum historical average retreat rates. Circles represent rates of shrinking of Aladağlar paleoglaciers, and solid lines represent one standard deviation. (b) Rate of change of temperature from modern measurements (Folland et al., 2001) and from ice-flow modeling of paleoglaciers in the Aladağlar. Open triangles are modern temperature data; filled triangles and fitted line define the upper limit. Filled circles are rates of paleotemperature changes, and lines represent one standard deviation. Both glacial retreat rates and temperature changes in the Aladağlar in the early Holocene are above the respective maximum limits based on modern observations and measurements. 158 DATA REPOSITORY ITEMS 159 METHODS Cosmogenic Dating Sample collection, preparation and analysis Rock samples were collected from top surfaces using hammer and chisel. They were cleaned of carbonate crusts, ground to size fraction 0.25-1.00 mm, leached overnight in deionized water, and dried. Samples were mixed with a 35Cl-enriched carrier, dissolved in nitric acid in a high-pressure reaction vessel at 25°C, and AgCl containing Cl from the sample and from the carrier was precipitated (Desilets et al., 2006a) and then purified of sulfur using Ba precipitation (Zreda et al., 1991). 36Cl/Cl was measured using accelerator mass spectrometry and 35 Cl/37Cl immediately following accelerator, both on the same AgCl target, at prime Lab, Purdue University. Powdered aliquots of rocks were analyzed for major elements using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, for U and Th using neutron activation analysis, and for B and Gd using neutron activation prompt gamma analysis, all at Activation Laboratories, Ontario, Canada. Total Cl was calculated from the 35 Cl/37Cl values. 160 Calculation of surface exposure ages Cosmogenic 36Cl surface exposure ages were calculated using the accumulation equation (Phillips et al., 1986) dN36/dt=P36-λ36N36, as implemented in the ACE (formerly iCRONUS) cosmogenic dating software (Anderson et al., 2007), where N36 is the number of atoms of 36Cl, t is the time, P36 is the production rate (atoms of 36Cl (g of rock)-1 y-1; varies with sample and location), and λ36 is the 36Cl decay constant (2.303x10-6 y-1). The following production rates were used: 71.6±3.7 atoms 36Cl (g Ca)-1 yr-1, 155.1±9.6 atoms 36 Cl (g K)-1 yr-1, and 676±40 fast neutrons (g air)-1 yr-1. These rates, called reference production rates, are based on the calibration data set of (Phillips et al., 1996), augmented by high-potassium samples from three additional sources: (Ivy-Ochs et al., 1996), (Zreda et al., 1999), and (Phillips et al., 2008). They have been scaled to sea level and high geomagnetic latitude using ref. (Desilets and Zreda, 2003; Desilets et al., 2006b), and to modern geomagnetic field conditions (referenced to the 1945.0 Definitive Geomagnetic Reference Field) using ref. (Pigati and Lifton, 2004). The main target element for 36 Cl production in the Aladağlar limestones is Ca, accounting for 95%-99% of the total production. Other available production rates from Ca (Stone et al., 1996; Swanson and Caffee, 2001), recomputed using the ace software, are 12% higher (Swanson and Caffee, 2001) and 13% lower (Stone et al., 1996) than our production rates, resulting in age estimates that are 12% younger (using ref. (Swanson and Caffee, 2001)) and 13% older (using ref. (Stone et 161 al., 1996)). The latest estimate, by the members of the Cosmic-Ray prOduced NUclide Systematics on Earth (CRONUS-Earth) Project, of the 36 Cl production rate from Ca is approximately 75 atoms 36Cl (g Ca)-1 yr-1 (F.M. Phillips, Unpublished presentation at the CRONUS-Earth Annual Meeting, Berkeley, 8-9 December 2007), which results in ages being 5% younger. These changes in the production rates do not affect the calculated absolute ages enough to invalidate the conclusions. If in future new production rate estimates are available, the 36 Cl exposure ages can be recalculated using data in Tables DR2 and DR3. The reference production rates are valid for sea level (atmospheric depth 1033 g cm-2) and high geomagnetic latitudes (geomagnetic cutoff rigidity <2 GV), and include the necessary (universal) corrections for secular changes in paleomagnetic intensity, changes in the position of the geomagnetic pole, and eustatic changes in sea level. Temporal variations in the Earth’s geomagnetic field intensity were reconstructed using archeomagnetic data (Yang et al., 2000) and stacked marine cores (Guyodo and Valet, 1999), and the position of the geomagnetic dipole axis using terrestrial sediments (Ohno and Hamano, 1992; Ohno and Hamano, 1993). The impact of sea-level changes on cosmogenic production was calculated using global sea level data (Fairbanks, 1989; Shackleton, 2000). However, following the recent suggestion (Osmaston, 2006) that Pleistocene sea-level changes should not be used to 162 correct atmospheric pressure, we also report ages without the eustatic correction (Table DR4). Uncorrected ages are 150 years to 200 years younger than corrected ages. The reference production rates were scaled to the sample sites using refs. (Desilets and Zreda, 2003; Desilets et al., 2006b) and include additional corrections for environmental factors: temperature, pressure, and lapse rate (Zreda et al., 2005). Corrections were also made for topographic shielding, which we determined by measuring the inclination to the horizon at 30° azimuthal increments using a hand-held clinometer; the lowering of production rates due to topographic shielding was between 0.5% and 14.1%. Snow cover, which is progressively thicker with increasing elevation, was found to reduce cosmogenic production rates by up to 9%. Corrections for snow cover were calculated by estimating the average annual snow thickness on boulder tops using the long term precipitation and temperature data from nearby six weather stations (Global Historical Climatology Network, version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/ghcn-monthly/index.php, accessed in May 2007) and interpolating them to Aladağlar by the method described in ref. (Özyurt, 2005). Calculation of ELA, Temperature and Precipitation Extents of former glaciers were determined from the positions of moraines A through G. Former ELAs, and temperature and precipitation changes were calculated using an ice flowline model. 163 Ice flowline model The ice flowline model was driven by mass balance changes computed from climate variations using differences from present day precipitation and temperature while assuming present day lapse rates. In forward mode, we input climatic (monthly temperature, precipitation, lapse rates), topographic (valley elevation) and model (positive degree day coefficients for ice and snow, standard deviation of monthly temperatures, deformational ice flow coefficient) information, and the model calculates climatic and glaciological states (altitude of ice margin, equilibrium-line altitude (ELA, an elevation separating the accumulation zone above from the ablation zone below), mass balance, and ice thickness). In inverse mode, we calculate all possible combinations of temperature and precipitation that would yield the position of the ice margin at a given time, and then determine the most likely (optimum) combination. For each month snowfall and snowmelt as a function of elevation was computed and water equivalent used as mass balance. Snow and ice melt rates were computed using a positive degree day model (degree days for snow and ice 3 and 8 mm day-1 °C-1 water equivalent, respectively, standard deviation of monthly temperatures 3°C). The mass balance along an assumed central glacier flowline (Fig. 1 in main text) was then used in the continuity equation for ice dynamics assuming that glacier velocities are proportional to local shear stresses. Time integrated mass flux changes then determined ice thickness. 164 Sliding was not implemented into the ice flowline model as it was considered to be of secondary importance during the significant retreat simulated by the model. This model has been applied recently in Turkey (Sarikaya et al., 2008) and in Hawaii (Pigati et al., 2008). Sensitivity of the Hacer Glacier to Temperature and Precipitation Precipitation increase and temperature decrease result in expansion of glaciers. But different glaciers display different sensitivity to the two parameters. The Hacer Valley glacier is much more sensitive to temperature than to precipitation (Fig. DR1), indicating that the temperature reconstruction is robust. Data Repository References Anderson, K.M., Bradley, E., Zreda, M., Rassbach, L., Zweck, C., Sheehan, E., 2007. ACE: Age Calculation Engine - A design environment for cosmogenic dating techniques. In: proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Engineering Computing and applications in Sciences, Papeete, Tahiti, pp. 39-48. 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Uncertainties of moraine ages are based on analytical uncertainties and on boulder-to-boulder variability, and total uncertainties (in brackets) also include uncertainties on production rates of 36Cl. Glacier length is measured along the flow line from the western wall in the Yedigöller Plateau (Fig. 1 in main text). Boulder ID Boulder age(1) (y) AL01-101 AL01-102 AL01-103 Moraine Moraine elevation (m) Moraine age(2) (y) Length ELA (km) (m) ∆T (°C) 8650 ± 420 8250 ± 510 8740 ± 490 A 3080 ± 17 8560 ± 270 (± 520) 3.3 3510 0 AL01-113 8190 ± 420 AL01-114 11340 ± 580 AL01-116 6930 ± 320 B 2578 ± 6 8750 ± 1,310 (± 1,390) 6.0 3030 -2.7 AL01-118 AL01-119 AL01-120 8290 ± 410 8070 ± 410 9880 ± 460 C 2345 ± 77 8770 ± 580 (± 730) 6.6 3000 -3.0 AL01-127 AL01-128 9270 ± 520 8900 ± 360 D 1745 ± 0 9060 ± 320 (± 560) 11.8 2240 -7.2 AL01-107 AL01-121 AL01-122 AL01-124 AL01-125 9240 9330 9610 9280 8600 460 560 360 540 510 E 1643 ± 9 9250 ± 220 (± 520) 14.1 2210 -7.5 AL01-108 9320 ± 340 AL01-110 10130 ± 540 AL01-111 9270 ± 530 F 1501 ± 18 9540 ± 280 (± 560) 15.4 2170 -8.0 AL05-172 10010 ± 320 AL05-173 10220 ± 240 AL05-174 10360 ± 250 G 1097 ± 10 10210 ± 160 (± 550) 17.2 2080 -9.0 ± ± ± ± ± Notes: (1) Boulder age ± 1 standard deviation based on uncertainties in chemical and isotopic analyses. (2) Weighted mean of boulder ages ± 1 standard error of the mean, calculated as the larger of the internal error based on analytical uncertainties (moraines A, D, E, F and G) and the external error based on boulder-to-boulder variability (moraines B and C), excluding the uncertainties on the production rates; the figures in brackets are standard error of the mean calculated including the uncertainty on the production rates of 36Cl. 172 Table DR2 Sample attributes and local corrections to production rates. Sample ID(a, b) Thickness(c) Latitude(d) Longitude(d) Elevation(e) Sea-level pressure (cm) (°N) (°E) (m) AL01-101 AL01-102 AL01-103 1 1 2 37.806 37.807 37.804 35.187 35.189 35.195 AL01-113 AL01-114 AL01-116 3 2 2 37.812 37.812 37.811 AL01-118 AL01-119 AL01-120 3 2 3 AL01-127 AL01-128 Sea-level temperature Lapse rate Boulder height(f) (g cm-2) (°C) (-°C/km) (m) (-) (-) 3075 3099 3065 1031.72 1031.72 1031.72 21.25 21.25 21.25 6.38 6.38 6.38 0.4 0.5 bedrock 0.995 0.995 0.972 0.9306 0.9431 0.9106 35.219 35.219 35.219 2585 2580 2575 1031.72 1031.72 1031.72 21.25 21.25 21.25 6.38 6.38 6.38 1.2 bedrock 0.6 0.92 0.859 0.92 0.9816 0.9233 0.9568 37.811 37.812 37.813 35.226 35.227 35.227 2340 2291 2293 1031.72 1031.72 1031.72 21.25 21.25 21.25 6.38 6.38 6.38 3 4 5 0.859 0.912 0.938 1 1 0.96 2.5 3 37.807 37.807 35.282 35.282 1745 1745 1031.72 1031.72 21.25 21.25 6.38 6.38 2 3 0.984 0.93 1 1 AL01-107 AL01-121 AL01-122 AL01-124 AL01-125 3 3 2 2.75 3 37.800 37.811 37.811 37.812 37.811 35.304 35.293 35.292 35.287 35.286 1636 1941 1938 1904 1905 1031.72 1031.72 1031.72 1031.72 1031.72 21.25 21.25 21.25 21.25 21.25 6.38 6.38 6.38 6.38 6.38 1.5 2.5 7 6 8 0.967 0.93 0.919 0.956 0.937 0.9983 1 1 1 1 AL01-108 AL01-110 AL01-111 2.5 3 1 37.802 37.804 37.806 35.317 35.318 35.318 1520 1520 1485 1031.72 1031.72 1031.72 21.25 21.25 21.25 6.38 6.38 6.38 2 2 2 0.974 0.982 0.982 1 1 1 AL05-172 AL05-173 AL05-174 5 4 3 37.806 37.802 37.802 35.339 35.341 35.341 1109 1091 1092 1031.72 1031.72 1031.72 21.25 21.25 21.25 6.38 6.38 6.38 1 8 15 0.985 0.983 0.984 1 1 1 Notes: (a) Water content of 0.5% was assumed. (b) Density of 2.6 g cm-3 was assumed. (c) Average sampled depth; measured. (d) From handheld GPS, nominal accuracy ±5 m. (e) From handheld GPS, nominal accuracy ±15 m. (f) Measured; when boulder irregular - averaged or estimated. (g) Calculated from measurements of angle to topographic features and of surface slope (dip). (h) Calculated using positive-degree day factors, and with climate data averaged over the past 30 years. Topography correction factor(g) Snow correction factor(h) 43.44 43.74 43.65 43.32 43.37 43.54 43.61 43.57 43.32 43.36 44 43.52 44 43.56 43.51 43.65 AL01-118 AL01-119 AL01-120 AL01-127 AL01-128 AL01-107 AL01-121 AL01-122 AL01-124 AL01-125 AL01-108 AL01-110 AL01-111 AL05-172 AL05-173 AL05-174 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.03 0 0 0.33 0.34 0.31 0.32 0.3 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.35 0.34 0.38 0.34 0.38 0.34 1.51 0.32 0.47 0.93 0.42 0.4 0.36 0.33 (wt. %) MgO 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.02 (wt. %) Al2O3 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.12 0.05 0.06 0.13 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.1 0.08 0.19 0.08 0.25 0.09 0.11 0.26 0.15 0.09 (wt. %) SiO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.03 0 0 0 0.01 0 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.02 0 (wt. %) P2O5 0.07 0 0.03 0.04 0 0.03 0 0 0 0.01 0.01 0 0 0.03 0.01 0 0.07 0 0 0.02 0 0.04 (wt. %) K2O 55.91 56.04 55.81 56.36 55.76 55.29 56.09 55.9 55.87 56.12 55.83 55.76 56.1 56.08 54.39 55.9 54.84 55.24 55.76 54.58 55.51 55.03 (wt. %) CaO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (wt. %) TiO 0 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0 0.002 0 0 0 0 0.002 0 0 0 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 (wt. %) MnO 0.01 0.02 0.02 0 0.08 0 0.02 0.04 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.01 0 0.1 0.02 0.03 0.09 0.04 (wt. %) Fe2O3 ± ± ± ± ± 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.1 25.3 ± 0.1 22.8 ± 0.2 26.3 ± 0.1 22.8 ± 0.1 19.6 ± 0.4 9.8 ± 0.2 6.6 11.6 13.4 25.2 14.5 17.1 ± 0.4 20.6 ± 0.2 12.4 ± 0.2 20.3 ± 0.1 11.2 ± 0.1 26.5 ± 0.8 21.0 ± 0.6 25.8 ± 0.4 36.4 ± 0.3 23.1 ± 0.5 30.0 ± 0.1 (ppm) Cl(d) Sm Gd U Th 0 0 0 0 0 2.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.4 0 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.02 0 0.02 0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0.02 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0 0.01 0 0 0.01 4.4 4.2 3.7 1.24 2.1 5.52 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.7 1 0.4 0.2 0.8 0.5 0.59 2.1 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.41 0 0 0 0 0.3 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0 0 0.3 0.2 0.1 1.2 0 (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) B(e) Notes: (a) Water content of 0.5% was assumed. (b) Density of 2.6 g cm -3 was assumed. (c) Major element concentrations are reported as oxides in weight percent (wt. %). The detection limits are 0.01%. (d) Total Cl calculated from measurement of 35Cl/37Cl on spiked samples, de-spiked (i.e., converted to value in the rock). (e) Trace element concentrations are in parts per million (ppm). The detection limits are 0.1 ppm. (f) The ratio 36Cl/Cl measured with accelerator mass spectrometry on spiked samples, de-spiked (i.e., converted to value in the original rock sample). 44 43.66 43.69 AL01-113 AL01-114 AL01-116 0 0 0.02 (wt. %) (wt. %) 44.65 43.89 44 Na2O CO2(c) AL01-101 AL01-102 AL01-103 Sample ID (a, b) Table DR3 Geochemical and isotopic analytical data. ± ± ± ± ± 357 247 162 131 218 1469 ± 45 1636 ± 36 1451 ± 34 2061 ± 74 2583 ± 127 4550 ± 241 7349 5108 4522 2410 3718 3195 ± 158 2425 ± 97 5209 ± 246 3127 ± 159 6948 ± 323 2996 ± 129 4657 ± 203 2536 ± 109 3336 ± 159 5109 ± 295 3868 ± 215 (10-15) Cl/Cl(f) 36 173 174 36 Table DR4 Cosmogenic Cl ages of boulders and mean ages of moraines. Also shown are alternative chronologies calculated with the use of other published production rates, and an alternative chronology calculated without sea-level corrections. 36 Cl age, y(a,b) Surface Sample A AL01-101 AL01-102 AL01-103 Average 8,650 8,250 8,740 8,562 ± ± ± ± 418 514 487 274 520 AL01-113 AL01-114 AL01-116 Average 8,190 11,340 6,930 8,746 ± ± ± ± 425 582 315 1,314 1,389 AL01-118 AL01-119 AL01-120 Average 8,290 8,070 9,880 8,773 ± ± ± ± 406 412 463 575 732 AL01-127 AL01-128 Average 9,270 8,900 9,057 ± ± ± 515 365 316 564 AL01-107 AL01-121 AL01-122 AL01-124 AL01-125 Average 9,240 9,330 9,610 9,280 8,600 9,254 ± ± ± ± ± ± 455 555 357 535 511 218 525 AL01-108 AL01-110 AL01-111 Average 9,320 10,130 9,270 9,545 ± ± ± ± 337 535 528 275 564 AL05-172 AL05-173 AL05-174 Average 10,010 10,220 10,360 10,214 ± ± ± ± 318 245 247 157 550 B C D E F G Uncertainty(c) 36 36 Cl age, y(d) Cl age, y(e) no sea-level correction Stone + D&Z scaling internal 8,460 8,080 8,540 8,375 ± ± ± ± 409 504 477 268 509 external 8,030 11,160 6,760 8,577 ± ± ± ± external 8,120 7,910 9,680 8,595 36 Cl age, y(f) Swanson + D&Z scaling 9,677 9,230 9,778 9,579 ± ± ± ± 468 575 545 307 582 7,498 7,151 7,576 7,422 ± ± ± ± 362 445 422 238 451 420 573 308 1,311 1,384 9,163 12,687 7,753 9,784 ± ± ± ± 475 651 353 1,470 1,554 7,099 9,830 6,007 7,581 ± ± ± ± 368 504 273 1,139 1,204 ± ± ± ± 398 404 454 563 717 9,274 9,028 11,053 9,815 ± ± ± ± 455 461 518 644 819 7,186 6,995 8,564 7,605 ± ± ± ± 352 357 401 499 635 internal 9,070 8,700 8,857 ± ± ± 504 357 309 552 10,371 9,957 10,133 ± ± ± 576 409 353 631 8,035 7,715 7,851 ± ± ± 446 317 274 489 internal 9,070 9,120 9,400 9,080 8,420 9,059 ± ± ± ± ± ± 445 543 349 524 500 213 514 10,337 10,438 10,751 10,382 9,621 10,353 ± ± ± ± ± ± 509 620 399 599 572 244 587 8,009 8,088 8,330 8,044 7,455 8,022 ± ± ± ± ± ± 394 481 309 464 443 189 455 internal 9,110 9,950 9,040 9,339 ± ± ± ± 329 526 518 280 558 10,427 11,333 10,371 10,679 ± ± ± ± 377 599 591 307 631 8,079 8,781 8,035 8,274 ± ± ± ± 292 464 458 238 489 internal 9,830 10,040 10,170 10,030 ± ± ± ± 312 240 242 154 540 11,199 11,434 11,590 11,427 ± ± ± ± 356 274 276 176 615 8,677 8,859 8,980 8,853 ± ± ± ± 276 212 214 136 477 Notes: (a) Red figures are uncertainties based on sample-to-sample variability only (b) Blue figures are total uncertainties (red + production rate uncertainties) (c) Uncertainty (red) is external (spread) or internal (analytical). The larger of the two is reported. (d) Correction of production rates for secular variations in sea level was neglected. (e) Ages calculated with 40Ca production rate of Stone (Stone et al., 1996), recalculated using D&Z (Desilets et al., 2006b) scaling factors. (f) Ages calculated with 40Ca production rate of Swanson (Swanson and Caffee, 2001), recalculated using D&Z (Desilets et al.,2006b) scaling factors. References cited: Desilets, D., Zreda, M., and Prabu, T., 2006, Extended scaling factors for in situ cosmogenic nuclides: New measurements at low latitude: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 246, p. 265-276. Stone, J.O., Allan, G.L., Fifield, L.K., and Cresswell, R.G., 1996, Cosmogenic chlorine-36 from calcium spallation: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 60, p. 679-692. Swanson, T.W., and Caffee, M.L., 2001, Determination of 36Cl production rates derived from the well-dated deglaciation surfaces of Whidbey and Fidalgo Islands, Washington: Quaternary Research, v. 56, p. 366-382. 175 APPENDIX E CONTERMINOUS WET AND DRY LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM CLIMATES OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya1, Marek Zreda1, Chris Zweck1, Attila Çiner2 1 Hydrology and Water Resources Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA 2 Geological Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey [in preparation for submission to Science] 176 Abstract The reconstruction of the last ice-age paleoclimate and the understanding of the glacial atmospheric circulation mechanisms of the Eastern Mediterranean have been remained problematic. The moisture conditions obtained from various paleoclimate proxies were incongruous for the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ~23,000 to 19,000 years ago). Here, we used five mountain glaciers of Turkey to constrain a direct measure of the ice-age precipitation of the region. Results showed that mountains influenced by the Mediterranean Sea received more precipitation (up to 2 times) than today, during the LGM. Northeast Black Sea Mountains were drier (~60%) because of the ceased moisture take-up from the cold Black Sea. Relatively warmer and moister air originated from the Mediterranean Sea and overlying cold and dry air pooled over the interior uplands created a boundary between the wet and dry LGM climates somewhere on the Anatolian plateau. Was the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) climate of circum-Mediterranean drier or wetter than present? Debate on the Eastern Mediterranean LGM moisture levels was emerged from the apparent conflict between the paleo-botanical evidence for widespread cold steppe biomass (1) with virtually absence of trees (2) (indicating semi-arid climate) and geomorphologic evidence of high paleo-lake levels (3) (implying wetter conditions). Different scenarios have been suggested to explain this discrepancy (4), but none has been emphasized on any regional heterogeneity? Wetter and drier conditions may have 177 been acted together in different parts of the Mediterranean during the LGM. Further conflicting scenarios were proposed for the LGM atmospheric circulation patterns and moisture sources responsible for the high paleo-lakes (5) and the advances of Mediterranean glaciers (6, 7). A wealth of paleoclimate proxies in the Eastern Mediterranean makes this region valuable to make inferences about paleo-environmental changes. Nevertheless, the complexity of the nature of these proxies and dynamics of the LGM atmosphere in the Mediterranean create incongruity among the published paleoclimate data (4, 8, 9), which emphasize the need for more direct constrains on the past regional climate patterns. The large scale features of today’s atmospheric circulations may have been geographically displaced, or subjected to different seasonal or inter-annual variations with different intensities (10). Dynamic structure of the ice-age Mediterranean atmosphere was probably affected by the large ice sheets on the northern Europe due to the southerly displacement of polar oceanic/atmospheric fronts (5, 7) and possible glacial time Arctic Oscillations (11). Was there any boundary between the cold air masses from the north and relatively warmer humid air masses from the south? The mismatch of the sea-level (12) and higher altitude proxy temperature reconstructions was associated to the steeper lapse rates (6), and therefore instability of the lower atmosphere. The possibility of different air masses on top of each other on the northern sector of the Mediterranean may have created that vertical temperature gradient. The answers of these questions were recorded in a variety of environmental archives from sea level (12) to high altitudes (6) 178 and direct assessments of these questions are critical to understand the past climate changes and to solve the inconsistencies on model-model (8) and model-proxy paleoclimate reconstructions. Mountain glaciers are very sensitive indicators of climate change and they react in a relatively simple way to it (13). They promptly respond to the minute changes on climate via changing their mass balances, and therefore sizes, which can be used as a climate proxy (Data supplement S1). By analogy, past glaciers in the Eastern Mediterranean mountain settings (Data supplement S2) offer direct and valuable information on the timing of past climate changes and modeling them under prescribed climatic conditions can be used to infer magnitude of these changes. Recent improvements in understanding of Late Pleistocene glacial chronologies by cosmogenic glacial dating in Turkish mountains (14-17) provide a unique and valuable opportunity to infer paleoclimate of Turkey and understand the past atmospheric circulation patterns in surrounding regions. LGM glaciers on Turkish mountains started to advance at least 26 ka (thousands years) ago (14, 15) (Data supplement S2 and Table S2) and continued until about 18 ka ago (14), with several retreats and re-advances (16) after the local maximum at around 21 ka ago (17), which is coeval with the glacial maximum of Mediterranean mountains (18) and closely correlated with the global LGM chron (~23 to 19 ka ago) (19) recorded in the North Atlantic ice cores and marine sediments. In this study, we have used a glacier flowline model (16) (Data supplement S1 and Table S1) to simulate LGM glacier extents of 179 five Turkish Mountains (Fig. 1) by changing the modern day climatic conditions (temperature and precipitation). Paleoclimatic inferences were made by matched length of modeled and field observed ice extents (Fig. S1). The results (Fig. 2) indicate a large window of climatic conditions that could produce LGM glaciers, thus, independent LGM paleoclimate proxies, either paleotemperature or paleoprecipitation, from the region were needed to narrow that range. The paleotemperature records (20) of the LGM on the Eastern Mediterranean suggest that the region was about 8-11oC colder than modern, in a good agreement with predictions made by the climate models (20, 21) and calculated temperature reductions based on the Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) differences between LGM and modern (Fig. S2). In contrast, there is no clear agreement regarding the contemporary precipitation amounts. Because of the LGM paleoprecipitation estimates are not consistent (3, 4), and it is harder to extrapolate in greater distances than paleotemperatures due to the fact that they can be affected easily by atmospheric circulations and local climatic conditions, we used the 811oC colder than today paleotemperature range, which is less ambiguous, to infer LGM moisture conditions in five locations of Turkey. According to the model results (Fig. 2), during the LGM, northeast of Turkey were drier than today, southwest coast of Turkish Mediterranean were wetter and interior and northwest to southeast regions were somewhat similar to modern values. The Kaçkar Mountains were dry during the LGM, with the precipitation range 1.02 to 0.42 times 180 relative to modern (Fig. 2). On the contrast, Mount Sandıras was up to 2 times wetter (16), in a range of 2.06 to 1.07 times relative to modern. LGM precipitation amounts on Uludağ, Mount Erciyes and Mount Cilo were closer to today’s values in a range of 1.36 to 0.67, 1.2 to 0.75 and 1.39 to 0.89 times relative to modern, respectively. Our analysis reveal an irregular LGM moisture pattern show that the paleo-atmospheric circulations were different than today. The anomalies between the ELA based (high altitude) and SST-based (sea level) LGM coolings on Mediterranean were interpreted as the implication of a steeper vertical temperature lapse rates which is potentially enhancing the instability of the atmospheric layers, and derived the local convections and consequently produced anomalous precipitation on the western Mediterranean (6). Our calculations showed similar instabilities on the Eastern Mediterranean (Fig. 1). Our glacier modeling analysis revealed that LGM glaciers on the coastal mountains of Turkish Mediterranean were occurred under a pronounced precipitation conditions (doubling on Mount Sandıras). Higher anomalies of temperature reductions between the high altitude and sea-level (~46oC near Mount Sandıras) (Fig. 1) imply the glacier growth was not purely dependent on the temperature reduction, but also precipitation may have played an important role (9). Marked difference on the LGM temperatures between sea-level and higher elevations in land (Fig. 1), recognized also by others (22), might have been responsible for Mediterranean type LGM monsoons (5) probably mostly occurred during winter and spring months, when the temperature difference is greater between sea and land (12). 181 This also explains the thick turbidities (23) and high winter sediment yields (24) in Eastern Mediterranean basins and pronounced seasonality effect on the lake levels and pollen records (25), and why the Mediterranean lakes were high prior and during the LGM (3-5), whereas there was widespread steppe vegetation implying the semi-arid conditions at the same time. Today, southwest and northeast Turkey are the wettest parts of the country (26), receives more than a meter of precipitation annually. But during the LGM, our model indicates that the moisture was ceased on the northeast Kaçkar Mountains while it was further enhanced on the southwest Turkey. This obviously implies a considerable difference on the atmospheric circulation patterns between LGM and today, which may be related with the southerly displacement of the polar front (to ~46oN on the North Atlantic, same latitude as Black Sea) (7) and expanded anticyclones originated due to the existence of large ice sheets on the northern latitudes (8). General circulation models indicate an enhanced sea-level pressure gradient towards to Black Sea (21), which produced glacial anticyclones that brought cold and dry air from the ice sheets and North Atlantic towards southern latitudes. Southerly LGM wind patterns were recorded in thick (>5m), extensive losses on the northern Black Sea region (27). These cold air incursions from the north enhanced the sea-ice growth in the Black Sea, especially during the winter months, and increased permafrost on the surrounding lands (8), which further cooled the air, ceased the moisture take-up from the Black Sea and produced dry and cold conditions in the surrounding regions (28). Today, the only source of moisture for the Kaçkar Mountains is 182 the year-round orographic precipitations from the Black Sea (26). Enriched ice growth on the cold Black Sea during the LGM significantly ceased that moisture take-up from the sea. Nevertheless, it could be still cold enough to produce glaciers on the Kaçkar Mountains and Caucasus during the LGM. LGM moisture levels of the interior regions of Turkey were somewhat similar to modern values (Fig. 2), which imply a negative moisture gradient away from the Mediterranean Sea. Today, the same phenomenon acts in a comparable fashion; precipitation drops considerably from coastal areas to upland interiors of Anatolia. The land elevation along the coast of Mediterranean increases rapidly creating a natural climatic barrier between coastal areas and the interiors. Such a spatial heterogeneity, though amplified, acted during the LGM while the maritime influence of Mediterranean considerably decreased and continentally increased markedly at the same time towards to inland Anatolia. Glacial time lakes in the central and eastern Anatolia (3) raised their water levels due to spring thaw of winter precipitation, mostly as snow, falls on coastal mountains of Mediterranean. We hypothesize that enhanced moisture delivery to northern Mediterranean and pronounced land-sea temperature contrast during LGM were possibly linked to the glacial time patterns of Arctic Oscillations, comparable to today’s North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) (29) defined by an index related with the pressure difference between the Icelandic Low and the Azores High. Despite the presence of glacial ice sheets, which 183 would have strongly influenced glacial wintertime atmospheric circulation over the North Atlantic (11), the NAO apparently existed during LGM with four centers, one of them placed over the Mediterranean/Iberia (11). Today, NAO is more a winter time phenomenon and strongly correlated with the Eastern Mediterranean (30) and Turkish climates (26, 31). A low NAO index causes more southerly storm tracks, increasing winter precipitation on southern Turkey, causing relatively dry northeast and lowering temperature outside of the coastal areas of Turkey (31). A possibility of prolonged negative LGM NAO conditions in Eastern Mediterranean similar to today’s consequences might have lead to the observed pattern of paleoclimatic conditions reveled by our glacier model. The intense LGM precipitation over the coastal mountains of Mediterranean was related to the pronounced negative glacial-NAO conditions and high Mediterranean SSTs, which are too warm compared to the overlying cold air (8). This cold and dry air was originated from the southerly displacement of the polar front and pooled over the upland interior Anatolia, making this region colder and drier than Mediterranean coast. These two air masses met at the southern border of Anatolian plateau; warm air from south could not penetrate into the interior because of the cold air on top and dumped all its moisture to the coastal mountains. Thus, there was a boundary between these two air masses somewhere on the Anatolia. Earlier studies viewed the LGM climate of the region as a whole and suggesting it was dry (3, 20). But our analysis reveled that the region has a spatial heterogeneities in term of moisture levels. Wetter regions were significantly 184 affected by the maritime Mediterranean while interior regions were under cold and dry conditions. Wetter conditions in the northern Mediterranean could represent a local monsoon like phenomenon, generated by the pronounced contrast of sea-land temperatures (6, 12). This hypothesis well explain why the coastal areas received extraordinary precipitations while the interiors and northeast coast of Turkey, somewhat similar and drier than today, respectively. References and Notes 1. H. Elenga et al., Journal of Biogeography 27, 621 (2000). 2. W. van Zeist, H. Woldring, D. Stapert, Palaeohistoria 7, 53 (1975). 3. N. Roberts, Quaternary Research 19, 154 (1983). 4. P. C. Tzedakis, Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 2042 (2007). 5. S. P. Harrison, G. Yu, P. E. Tarasov, Quaternary Research 45, 138 (1996). 6. J. Kuhlemann et al., Science 321, 1338 (2008). 7. D. Florineth, C. Schluchter, Quaternary Research 54, 295 (2000). 8. A. Jost et al., Climate Dynamics 24, 577 (2005). 9. H. B. Wu, J. L. Guiot, S. Brewer, Z. T. Guo, Climate Dynamics 29, 211 (2007). 10. M. L. Wigley, G. Farmer, in Paleoclimates, Paleoenvironments and Human Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory, J. L. Bintliff, W. van Zeist, Eds. (B.A.R., Oxford, 1982), vol. International Series I33(i), pp. 3-37. 185 11. F. Justino, W. R. Peltier, Geophysical Research Letters 32, (2005). 12. A. Hayes, M. Kucera, N. Kallel, L. Sbaffi, E. J. Rohling, Quaternary Science Reviews 24, 999 (2005). 13. J. Oerlemans, Glaciers and Climate Change. (Sweets and Zeitlinger BV, Lisse, 2001), pp. 148. 14. N. Akçar et al., Journal of Quaternary International, 164-165, 170 (2007). 15. N. Akçar et al., Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 273 (2008). 16. M. A. Sarikaya, M. Zreda, A. Ciner, C. Zweck, Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 769 (2008). 17. M. A. Sarıkaya, M. Zreda, A. Çiner, Quaternary Science Reviews (accepted), (2009). 18. P. D. Hughes, J. C. Woodward, Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 575 (2008). 19. A. C. Mix, E. Bard, R. Schneider, Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 627 (2001). 20. S. A. Robinson, S. Black, B. W. Sellwood, P. J. Valdes, Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 1517 (2006). 21. E. Barron, T. H. van Andel, D. Pollard, in Neanderthals and modern humans in the European landscape during the last glaciation, T. H. van Andel, W. Davies, Eds. (University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 2003), pp. 57-78. 22. M. D. Jones, C. N. Roberts, M. J. Leng, Quaternary Research 67, 463 (2007). 23. R. G. Rothwell et al., Sedimentary Geology 135, 75 (2000). 24. R. E. L. Collier et al., Geology 28, 999 (2000). 25. I. C. Prentice, J. Guiot, S. P. Harrison, Nature 360, 658 (1992). 186 26. M. Türkeş, E. Erlat, Theoretical and Applied Climatology 92, 75 (2008). 27. B. Buggle et al., Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 1058 (2008). 28. C. E. Cordova et al., Quaternary International 197, 12 (2009). 29. J. W. Hurrell, Y. Kushnir, M. Visbeck, Science 291, 603 (2001). 30. H. M. Cullen, A. Kaplan, P. A. Arkin, P. B. Demenocal, Climatic Change 55, 315 (2002). 31. E. Tan, Y. S. Ünal, in Europian Geophysical Society. (Nice, 2003), vol. 5. 32. We thank the US National Science Foundation (NSF Grant 0115298) and the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK Grants 101Y002 and 107Y069). 187 FIGURES 188 Fig. 1. Map of the study area. The ELA-based temperature depressions and the SST difference between LGM and modern in the Eastern Mediterranean are shown in blue and black dotted lines, respectively. The color map shows the difference between these two; high anomaly areas indicate steeper lapse rates and unstable layering of the lower troposphere, thus producing local convective precipitation (6). Red and blue arrows show the trajectories of moist/warm and cold/dry air masses, based on LGM wind patterns (27), respectively. Blue areas represent the maximum glaciated regions during LGM. 189 Fig. 2. Glacier model results. Modeled length (in km) of (A) Uludağ, (B) Mount Sandıras, (C) Mount Erciyes, (D) The Kaçkar Mountains and (E) Mount Cilo LGM glaciers as a function of temperature and precipitation changes from those of today. The maximum extents of LGM glaciers are shown in thick color lines. (F) The combination of results for LGM glaciers and a possible LGM temperature range (8-11oC colder than today) obtained from different proxies in the region are shown as vertical dotted lines. 190 SUPPORTING ONLINE MATERIAL 191 Data supplement S1: Glacier model The glacier modeling procedures applied in this study involves the use of a physicallybased, one dimensional ice flow line model (S1,S2). It simulates the flow of ice enforced by the annual mass balance gradient at any point of the topographic flow line of a glacier. The mass balance is calculated by the difference of the net accumulation and ablation of snow, and used to create the glacier growth and formation of steady-state glaciers according to the equations of ice flow (S3, S4). Since the simulated ice extent is a function of prescribed climatic conditions, the model allows user to match modeled and field observed extent of the glacier to draw inferences about the past climates. This forward modeling approach eliminates the need of estimate Equilibrium Line Altitudes (ELAs) from indirect methods (such as Accumulation Area Ratio method) to make inferences about paleoclimate. Calculation of Mass Balance An important boundary condition for the glacier model is the annual surface ice mass balance. The mass balance was calculated by using the ice accumulation and ablation (melt water runoff). The total annual accumulation of snow is determined using the projected modern monthly precipitation total and mean temperatures, which have the largest impact on glacier mass balance (S3). In the model, accumulation of ice is predicted by snowfall modeled as precipitation occurring below zero oC. Above those 192 temperatures, no accumulation of ice is occurred. Below zero oC, all precipitation was occurred as snow. Yearly ablation of ice/snow is predicted by using the positive degree day factors, which assume a correlation between the sum of positive air temperatures and the amount of ablation (S5). We assume that melting rate is set proportional to the yearly sum of positive degree days at the surface. The expected annual sum of positive degree days ( PDD) is evaluated by (S5, S6): PDD = σ 12 ∫ 0 T sur 30.40.3989 exp −1.58 mon σ 1.1372 sur Tmon + max 0, dt σ (1) sur Where, Tmon is the mean monthly surface temperatures and σ is the standard deviation of monthly temperatures to account for the daily cycle and random atmospheric fluctuations (S6). PDD is used to melt snow or ice by using the degree day factors of 3 mm day-1 oC-1 (water equivalent) for snow and 8 mm day-1 oC-1 for ice (S7). Finally, glacier mass balance is calculated as snow accumulation minus ablation. Ice flow Based on annual mass balance, ice thicknesses are calculated using a one dimensional finite difference flow model: 193 ∂h ∂q =− +b ∂t ∂x (2) Where h is the ice thickness, t time, q mass flux, x distance down the central flow line and b mass balance. The model simulates the glacier response to changes in mass balance by varying the mass flux until a steady state thickness profile and extent is reached. All glacier reconstructions shown are in steady state equilibrium with prescribed climates. Mass flux is computed in the model as ice thickness times velocity v , with velocity assumed to arise from internal deformation: ∂h 3 q = hv = A( ρg) h ∂x 3 5 (3) Where ρ is the ice density, g acceleration due to gravity and A the flow rate parameter (0.5 x 10-16 kg-3 m3 yr2). Sensitivity tests suggest that the glacier thicknesses are sensitive to A but not the glacier lengths, which in steady state reconstructions are essentially limits of positive down-valley mass balance integrals. We also explored introducing a width factor to account for the variable width of the glacier (particularly in the accumulation zone) but found that for the geometry of valleys we used the effect was minimal. Introducing a sliding factor increased the glacier lengths by a few percent, 194 indicating a slight model overestimation of either precipitation rate increases or temperature decreases if sliding occurred in Turkish glaciers during the LGM. Local Climate Parameterizations The calculation of mass balance requires climatic input parameters of modern monthly temperature and precipitation estimates along the ice flow line (Fig. S1). Such climatic data are usually missing on modeled elevations, thus they needed to be extrapolated to these elevations. The best estimates are made by interpolating the climate variables from surrounding meteorological stations. Long term monthly mean temperature and precipitation data were downloaded from the Global Historical Climatology Network (Version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate /ghcn-monthly/index.php, accessed in January 2009). We restricted to use of meteorological station data that have at least ~30 years of coverage between 1960 and 1990. On the northern slope of Uludağ, there are four meteorological stations on various elevations. Thus, a linear fit used to extrapolate the needed climatic inputs on higher elevations. In other places, precipitation amounts are interpolated inside a 200 km radius of the mountain by the krigging method using the ArcGIS software (version 9.1), for each month. Temperature reconstructions is made by the interpolating the measured monthly temperatures from nearby stations by using the local monthly lapse rates, measured by nearby radiosonde stations (downloaded from National Oceanic and Atmospheric 195 Administration / Earth System Research Laboratory, http://raob.fsl.noaa.gov, accessed in January 2009). The annual (all months), winter (December, January and February; DJF) and summer (June, July and August; JJA) estimates of precipitation sums, average temperatures and average temperature lapse rates on the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)’s ELAs (Fig. S2) of studied mountains are given in Table S1. Data supplement S2: Regional settings and site details Present day glaciers and paleoglaciers in Turkey occur in three major regions: 1) the Taurus Mountain Range (Fig. S1 A), along the Mediterranean coast and southeast Turkey, 2) The Pontic Mountain Range, along the Eastern Black Sea coast and 3) volcanoes and independent mountains scattered across the Anatolian plateau (S8). The Taurus Mountain Range has two-thirds of the previously glaciated mountains. Among them, Mount Cilo (4135 m), in the southeast Turkey, supports a 1.5 km long retreating glacier today (S9, S10). In the central Taurus, Aladaglar (3756 m) (S11) and Bolkarlar (3524 m) (S10) constitute two of the most important mountains where past glaciers were present. On the western part of Turkey, although there are no active glaciers today, smaller glaciers were present during LGM, particularly on the western parts of the Taurus range (S1). On the Pontic Mountain Range, several valleys of Kaçkar Mountains; Kavron Valley (3932 m) (S12), the Verçenik Valley (3710 m) (S13) and Karagöl (3107 m) and Karadağ (3331 m) mountains were supported glaciers (S14). In the interior of the country, a number of independent mountains and volcanoes sustained glaciers (S8). 196 Mount Ağrı (5165 m) (also known as Ararat), has an ice cap with several outlet glaciers (S10). Mount Erciyes (3917 m) in the central Turkey shows successive evidence of past glacial activity (S15) since LGM. Site Details Mount Sandıras Mount Sandıras (also known as Çiçekbaba), westernmost glaciated mountain in the country (37.1oN, 28.8oE, 2295 m above mean sea level), is located in the Taurus Mountain Range, 40 km away from the coast of Mediterranean sea (S1). Three small valleys on the north side of the mountain were filled with ~1.5 km long glaciers that terminated at an altitude of 1900 m (Fig. S1 B). The geological formation exposed on the mountain is the upper part of the Lycian Allochthons (S16) which consists of serpentinized harzburgite, pyroxenite, pedifrom dunite and chromitite (S17). The modern climate in southwest Turkey is characterized by dry/hot summers and wet/temperate winters. Eastward storm tracks originated either from the Atlantic Ocean or from the Mediterranean Sea (S18) bring most of the winter precipitation on Mount Sandıras. The glacial landforms on Mount Sandıras were mapped and described in detail somewhere else (S1, S19, S20). Recently, nine boulders from terminal moraines of Mount Sandıras were dated by cosmogenic 36 Cl (Table S2) (S1). The glacial activity on Mount 197 Sandıras correlates with LGM, with a maximum glaciation occurred approximately 20.4±1.3 ka (thousands years) ago, when glaciers started to retreat and the most extensive moraines were deposited. The glaciers advanced and retreated by 19.6±1.6 ka ago, and then again by 16.2±0.5 ka (S1). Since then, the mountain shows no evidence of glacial activity and, now it is free of ice. Uludağ Uludağ (means “almighty mountain” in Turkish: “Ulu” means almighty and “dağ” means mountain; ancient name was Olympos Mysios) is located about 50 km southeast of the Marmara Sea (40.1oN, 29.2oE, 2543 m). It forms a single WNW-ESE trending mountain range, with a short, relatively flat topped crest about 12 km long and 800 m wide. Uludağ largely consist of high-grade metamorphic rocks and granite intrusions (S21) and the summit area mainly consist of muscovite bearing calcite-marbles (S22). Current climate of the region is under the influence of the Mediterranean type climate (S23) with dry/mild summers and wet/temperate winters. Uludağ has several cirques and valleys that previously occupied by glaciers (S24). Today, there is no recent glacier existed in the mountain (S25). Nine independent cirques were occupied by past glaciers on the northeast slopes of the mountain (S24). Birman, J.H. (S26) made a quick survey, and differentiated four main moraine sets in Çayırlı Valley, 4 km east of Uludağ ski resorts (Fig. S1 C). These moraines were associated by the Early, 198 Middle, Late and Post Wisconsin glaciations using the relative age techniques such as moraine stability, degree of erosion, and weathering content (S26). Recently, 26 10 Be and Al cosmogenic exposure ages of moraines indicates that local LGM was occurred by 20.3 ka ago (S27). Morphologically constrained subsequent glacier oscillations were dated to the Lateglacial period and show distinct phases of glacier re-advances by around 16.1 ka, around 13.3 ka, and around 11.5 ka ago (S27). We used Late Wisconsin moraines of Uludağ to correlate LGM glaciations on other mountains of Turkey. Mount Erciyes Mount Erciyes, the highest mountain in the central Turkey (38.5oN, 35.5oE, 3917 m), is a stratovolcano rising more than 2800 m above its base. The volcanism developed in two evolutionary stages (S28). The first stage began with basaltic lava flows, and terminated with extensive ignimbritic eruptions ~3 Ma ago (S29). The second stage involved basaltic, andesitic, dacitic, and rhyolitic lavas, and terminated with pyroclastic eruptions and debris avalanches (S28). The interior Turkey is characterized by continental climate with hot/dry summers and cold/moderately wet winters (S23). Mount Erciyes has two major and three minor valleys that were previously occupied by glaciers (S15). Forty-four boulders from moraines of Mount Erciyes dated with 36 Cl by (S15). The glacial activity on the mountain is represented by four periods. LGM glaciers were the extensive ones, reaching 6 km in length and descending to an altitude of 2150 m 199 (Fig. S1 D). These glaciers started retreating between 21.3±0.9 ka ago (Table S2). The glaciers readvanced and retreated by 14.6±1.2 ka ago during the Late Glacial, and again by 9.3±0.5 ka ago during the Early Holocene. The latest advance took place 3.8±0.4 ka ago. The recent glacier descending down to 3450 m on the northwest face of the summit area (Fig. S1 D) remained from the last advance (possibly during the Little Ice Age) (S15). Kaçkar Mountains Mount Kaçkar (40.9oN, 41.2oE, 3932 m) is situated in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains (also called as Kaçkarlar) in the Pontic Range of the northeast of Turkey, lying approximately 40 km south of the coast of Black Sea. The Eastern Pontides comprises Mesozoic to Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic units on top of pre-Jurassic to upper Mesozoic metamorphic and magmatic rocks (S30). The modern climate in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains is characterized by yearlong humid climate generally due to the orographic precipitation resulted by the air masses coming from the Black Sea (S23). Mount Kaçkar is the highest peak of the several hundred km long Pontic Range bearing numerous cirques and U-shaped valleys descending down to lower elevations. Recently, moraines and glacier related landforms of two valleys of Mount Kaçkar were dated by cosmogenic 10 Be (S12, S13). Twenty-two samples from Kavron Valley (Fig. S1 E) and nineteen samples from Verçenik Valley revealed that advance of paleoglaciers on Mount 200 Kaçkar started before about 26 ka ago and ended about 18 ka ago (Table S2). After an unknown magnitude of recessions of glaciers, a Late Glacier advance took place around 13±0.8 to 11.5±0.8 ka in the Kavron Valley (S12). Little Ice Age moraines are appear to be absent in both valleys (S12). A few recent glaciers exist in the high elevations with less than 1 km lengths (Fig. S1 E). Mount Cilo Mount Cilo (37.5oN, 44oE, 4135 m), the second highest mountain of Turkey after Mount Ağrı (Mount Ararat), is located at the highest crest of Taurus-Zagros Mountains on the corner of southeast border of Turkey. The mountain range consists largely of Paleozoic and Mesozoic metamorphic and volcanic rocks (S31) along with folded Mesozoic limestone and Tertiary terrestrial sedimentary rocks (S32). The climate on the TaurusZagros range is Mediterranean type (S23). Precipitation falls during fall, winter and spring months due to the cyclonic disturbances that travel along the Taurus range from the west (S33) and Arabian anticyclones from the south (S31). Studies on glaciers on Mount Cilo were started as early as the same time of studies in other places in Turkey (S34) nevertheless there is no numerical age results, yet. (S9) and (S31) studied extensively the Late Quaternary glacial deposits as well as the recent glacier activities on the mountain. They mapped the glacial extent in the northern valleys (Fig. S1 F). Consecutive moraine ridges that marked the past glacial extents were 201 supplied by the glaciers on the north facing cirques at elevations about 3500 m. The age of the maximum extent is assigned as Würm by relative methods (S9). Currently, there are six recent glaciers reaching to about 1.5 km in length in the mountain (Fig. S1 F). References S1. M. A. Sarıkaya, M. Zreda, A. Ciner, C. Zweck, Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 769 (2008). S2. J. S. Pigati et al., Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 683 (2008). S3. W. S. B. Paterson, The Physics of Glaciers. (Pergamon, Oxford, ed. Third, 1994). S4. W. Haeberli, Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quarternaria 18, 191 (1996). S5. R. J. Braithwaite, Journal of Glaciology 41, 153 (1995). S6. C. Zweck, P. Huybrechts, Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 110, (2005). S7. R. J. Braithwaite, Y. Zhang, Journal of Glaciology 46, 7 (2000). S8. A. Ciner, in Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology, Part I: Europe, J. Ehlers, P. L. Gibbard, Eds. (Elsevier Publishers, Amsterdam, 2004), pp. 419– 429. S9. H. Bobek, Annals of glaciology 27, 50 (1940). S10. A. Kurter, Ed., Glaciers of Middle East and Africa—glaciers of Turkey, vol. 1386-G-1 (USGS Professional Paper, 1991), vol. 1386-G-1, pp. 30. 202 S11. M. Zreda, C. Zweck, M. A. Sarıkaya, in American Geophysical Union Conference. (San Fransisco, USA, 2006), vol. PP43A-1232. S12. N. Akçar et al., Journal of Quaternary International 164-165, 170 (2007). S13. N. Akçar et al., Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 273 (2008). S14. A. F. Doğu, İ. Çiçek, G. Gürgen, H. Tuncel, Ankara University Turkish Geography Bulletin 5, 29 (1996). S15. M. A. Sarıkaya, M. Zreda, A. Çiner, Quaternary Science Reviews (accepted), (2009). S16. A. S. Collins, A. H. F. Robertson, Journal of the Geological Society, London 155, 759 (1998). S17. A. S. Collins, University of Edinburgh (1997). S18. L. R. Stevens, H. E. Wright, E. Ito, Holocene 11, 747 (2001). S19. X. de Planhol, Compte Rendu Sommaire de la Societe Geologique de France, 263 (1953). S20. A. F. Doğu, Ankara University Turkish Geography Bulletin 2, 263 (1993). S21. A. I. Okay, M. Satir, M. Zattin, W. Cavazza, G. Topuz, Geological Society of America Bulletin 120, 893 (2008). S22. T. Imbach, in Active tectonics of northwestern Anatolia; the MARMARA polyproject; a multidisciplinary approach by space-geodesy, geology, hydrogeology, geothermics and seismology, T. Imbach, C. Schindler, M. Pfister, Eds. (v/d/f, Zurich, Switzerland, 1997), pp. 239-266. 203 S23. Y. Ünal, T. Kindap, M. Karaca, International Journal of Climatology 23, 1045 (2003). S24. S. Erinç, Review of the Geographical Institude of the Istanbul University 11-12, 79 (1949). S25. I. Atalay, Introduction to Geomorphology of Turkey. (Ege University Press, Izmir, 1987). S26. J. H. Birman, Geological Society of America Bulletin 79, 1009 (1968). S27. C. Zahno, N. Akçar, V. Yavuz, P. W. Kubik, C. Schlüchter, in 62th Geological Conference of Turkey. (Ankara, Turkey, 2009). S28. E. Sen, B. Kurkcuoglu, E. Aydar, A. Gourgaud, P. M. Vincent, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 125, 225 (Jul, 2003). S29. F. Innocenti, R. Mazzuoli, G. Pasquare, F. Radicati di Brozolo, L. Villari, Geological Magazine 112, 349 (1975). S30. A. İ. Okay, Ö. Şahintürk, in Regional and Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea and Surrounding Region, A. G. Robinson, Ed. (American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoirs,, 1997), vol. 68, pp. 291-311. S31. H. E. Wright, Eiszeitlalter und Gegenroart 12, 131 (1962). S32. İ. E. Altınlı, Bulletin of Minerals Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey 66, 35 (1966). S33. K. W. Butzer, Bonner Geogr. Abhandl 24, 157 (1958). S34. F. R. Maunsell, The Geographical Journal 18, 121 (1901). S35. B. Messerli, Geographica Helvetica 22, 105 (1967). 204 S36. J. Ehlers, P. L. Gibbard, Eds., Quaternary glaciations-Extent and chronology Part I: Europe, vol. 1 (2004), vol. 1, pp. 475. 205 SUPPLEMENTARY ONLINE MATERIAL FIGURES AND TABLES 206 Fig. S1. Digital elevation models (DEMs) of studied areas. Color coding for elevation is same for all sub-figures (A) General DEM of Turkey and surrounding region. DEMs and elevation counters in meters of (B) Mount Sandıras, (C) Uludağ, (D) Mount Erciyes, (E) Kaçkar Mountains and (F) Mount Cilo. LGM Ice flow lines which glacier models applied are indicated with solid black lines. White areas are LGM moraines. Maximum ice extent of LGM glaciers obtained from (1) for Mount Sandıras, from (26) for Uludağ, from (15) for Mount Erciyes, from (12) for Kaçkar Mountains and from (9) for Mount Cilo are shown by black arrows. Modern glaciers are indicated as blue regions. 207 Fig. S2. Map of ELAs of modern (green lines) and LGM (brown lines) glaciers (adapted from (35)). Blue areas are maximum extents of LGM glaciers (adapted from (36)). 1000 562 35 5.8 -0.6 12.9 6.33 5.12 7.19 Annual average temperature at LGM's ELA (oC) Winter (DJF) average temperature at LGM's ELA ( oC) Summer (JJA) average temperature at LGM's ELA ( oC) Year average temperature lapse rate (oC km -1) Winter (DJF) average temperature lapse rate ( oC km -1) Summer (JJA) average temperature lapse rate ( oC km -1) none none none 2970 3000-3500 Modern glacier type Modern glacier ice limit (m) Modern glacier length (km) Modeled modern ELA (m) Modern ELA from (34 ) (m) Annual precipitation at LGM's ELA (mm) Winter (DJF) precipitation at LGM's ELA (mm) Summer (JJA) precipitation at LGM's ELA (mm) Valley 1900 1.5 1998 2300-2400 LGM glacier type LGM ice limit elevation, (m) LGM glacier length (km) Modeled LGM ELA (m) LGM ELA from (34 ) (m) 2 2230 1778 3.3 NE Kartal Lake 37.1 28.8 2295 Valley name Latitude (oN) Longitude (oE) Peak elevation (m) Model range (km) Model start elevation (m) Model end elevation (m) Standart deviation of monthly temp (oC) Aspect Mt. Sandıras Mountain name 5.33 5.06 6.02 4.1 -3.3 11.2 1574 617 180 none none none 3087 3000-3500 Valley 1850 2.9 2126 2200-2330 6.42 5.24 7.25 -0.4 -8.6 7.6 721 227 85 Cirque 3450 0.26 3553 3650 Valley 2150 5.8 2695 2700 6.8 3650 2051 3.95 NW-N Aksu 38.5 35.4 3917 Çayırlı 40.1 29.2 2543 5.6 2400 1363 3.9 NNE Mt. Erciyes Uludağ 5.33 5.53 5.10 0.9 -6.4 8.8 1252 346 275 Cirque 3220 0.98 3550 3500 Valley 2020 9.4 2488 2300-2500 15 3650 1454 3.2 N Kavron 40.9 41.2 3932 Kaçkar Mts. Table S1 Physical and climatological properties of modeled mountains 7.84 7.77 8.32 1.2 -13.5 13.2 2080 855 87 Valley 2840 0.9 3412 3500-3600 Valley 2048 8.7 2512 2800 13.6 3350 1592 3 N-NW Uludoruk 37.5 44.0 4135 Mt. Cilo 208 209 Table S2 Cosmogenic ages of LGM moraines of Sandıras (1), Erciyes (15) and Kaçkar Mountains (12, 13) Sample ID Surface designation Latitude Longitude Elevation (m) (oN) (oE) Boulder age (ka) Surface Age (ka) Mount Sandıras SA02-609 SA02-610 SA02-611 Kartal Lake A1 Kartal Lake A1 Kartal Lake A1 37.100 37.100 37.100 29.854 28.853 28.853 1899 1902 1902 22.1 ± 3.3 19.6 ± 1.0 20.6 ± 2.1 20.4 ± 1.3 SA02-612 SA05-618 Kartal Lake A2 Kartal Lake A2 37.100 37.100 28.849 28.852 1949 1914 17.2 ± 2.9 20.6 ± 1.3 19.6 ± 1.6 Mount Erciyes ER01-12 ER01-14 Aksu LLM Aksu LLM 38.553 38.556 35.421 35.417 2766 2703 19.3 ± 0.9 23.1 ± 2.0 20.7 ± 1.8 ER01-25 ER01-26 ER01-27 Aksu RLM Aksu RLM Aksu RLM 38.561 38.561 38.557 35.423 35.423 35.426 2693 2693 2764 22.2 ± 1.4 16.6 ± 0.9 25.3 ± 1.2 21.4 ± 2.6 ER01-43 ER01-45 ER01-46 Üçker RLM Üçker RLM Üçker RLM 38.538 38.540 38.539 35.483 35.486 35.486 2909 2849 2849 22.8 ± 1.0 21.2 ± 1.2 18.1 ± 0.6 20.4 ± 1.5 Kaçkar Mountains TRK-5 TRK-6 TRK-7 TRK-8 TRK-9 TRK-10 TRK-11 TRK-12 TRK-13 TRK-14 TRK-16 TRK-17 TRK-18 TRK-26 Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Upper Kavron LGM Mezovit LGM 40.881 40.882 40.882 40.883 40.883 40.883 40.884 40.886 40.887 40.887 40.889 40.886 40.886 40.854 41.136 41.136 41.136 41.136 41.136 41.136 41.136 41.134 41.133 41.133 41.135 41.140 41.138 41.142 2414 2380 2378 2338 2338 2339 2328 2273 2251 2256 2297 2452 2397 2849 24.6 26.0 19.9 20.6 19.2 18.3 20.3 21.5 20.1 22.4 21.1 23.9 22.2 20.7 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.5 1.4 1.3 between 26.0±1.2 ka and 18.3±0.9 ka TRV-6 TRV-8 TRV-9 TRV-10 TRV-11 Vercenik LGM Vercenik LGM Vercenik LGM Vercenik LGM Vercenik LGM 40.801 40.795 40.795 40.795 40.797 40.921 40.902 40.903 40.903 40.905 1971 2200 2190 2180 2095 21.9 23.5 24.4 26.1 18.8 ± ± ± ± ± 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.0 between 26.1±1.2 ka and 18.8±1.0 ka 210 APPENDIX F SUMMARY OF THE LATE QUATERNARY GLACIAL CHRONOLOGY OF TURKEY 30 25 20 15 10 5 -40 o -50 Allerød Bølling- LGM (b) Kartal Lake Valley LGM LG EH (d) Aksu Valley 36 LH Cl samples LGM LG EH (e) Üçker Valley EH (f) Hacer Valley SUMMARY OF THE LATE QUATERNARY GLACIAL CHRONOLOGY OF TURKEY LG (c) NW Valley Aladaglar M M M M M M ? M M M M ? ? ? ? ? ? (g) Turkey Verçenik (Akçar et al., 2008) Valleys of the Kaçkarlar Mountains; Muslu Valley of Mount Dedegöl (Zahno et al., 2006; 2007); Uludağ (Zahno et al., 2009). Sandıras (APPENDIX B); the Aksu and Üçker Valleys of Mount Erciyes (APPENDIX C); the Hacer Valley, Aladağlar (APPENDIX D); the Kavron (Akçar et al., 2007) and maximum glaciations is indicated as capital letter M, wherever possible. Vertical gray bars indicate possible range of ages from the Kartal Lake and Northwest Valleys of Mount Open circles and diamonds indicate the samples from outwash deposits of EH and LH, respectively. g) Comparison of the Late Quaternary glaciations of Turkey. Timing of moraine age calculations were not plotted. LGM: Last Glacial Maximum (triangles); LG: Late Glacial (squares); EH: Early Holocene (circles); LH: Late Holocene (diamonds). Mount Sandıras (see Table 1), d) the Aksu and e) Üçker Valleys of Mount Erciyes (see Table 2) and f) the Hacer Valley of Aladağlar (see Table 3). Samples excluded from the a) Reconstructed air temperatures from the GISP 2 ice core in Greenland (Alley, 2000) and the cosmogenic exposure ages from b) the Kartal Lake and c) Northwest Valleys of Reconstructed temp. C -30 Heinrich 2 event Maximum Last Glacial Heinrich 1 event Younger Dryas 8.2 cold event (a) GISP 2 Mount Erciyes M t .E rc i ye s Mt. Sandiras as dir Mt .S an lar Ala d ag Ka ç ka r Mt s. Mt . Age, ka Ka rt a l La NW ke V. V Ak . su V. Üç k er Ha V. ce r Ka V. v ro nV Ve . r çe nik Mu slu V. Ulu V. da g De de g ö Ulu l da g 0 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Age, ka 211 212 Table 1 36 Cl ages of boulders and moraine ages of Mount Sandiras glaciation (from Appendix B) 36 Sample ID Surface Cl boulder age a Used? b (ka) Landform age c (ka) Kartal Lake Valley SA02-609 SA02-610 SA02-611 A1 22.1 19.6 20.6 ± ± ± 3.3 1.0 2.1 1 1 1 20.4 ± 1.3 ext [1.6] A2 17.2 19.2 21.9 34.7 ± ± ± ± 2.9 0.8 0.9 1.3 1 1 1 0 19.6 ± 1.6 ext [1.8] SA05-616 SA05-616-A B1 14.8 17.2 ± ± 1.2 0.6 1 1 16.5 ± 1.1 ext [1.3] SA05-613 SA05-617 SA05-617-A B2 5.1 16.4 16.0 ± ± ± 0.3 0.8 0.7 0 1 1 16.2 ± 0.5 ext [0.8] SA02-612 SA05-618 SA05-618-A SA05-619 Northwest Valley a The uncertainties of boulder ages were given at the 1 sigma level and calculated by propagation of AMS reported analytical errors on 36Cl/Cl ratio and 20% uncertainty was assumed for the calculated nucleogenic component. The suffix A of the sample name indicates the replicates, which were averaged before adding to the moraine age calculations. b Indicates whether or not the boulder age was used for the calculation of landform age; 1: used, 0: not used. c Weighted average of boulder ages with uncertainties, at 1 sigma level, that are based on boulder-to-boulder variability and with total uncertainties which also include uncertainty on production rates of 36Cl (in brackets; they should be used when comparing cosmogenic ages with ages obtained from other dating methods). Type of uncertainity is also shown; internal (due to the analytical errors), external (due to the spread of data). The larger of the two is reported. 213 Table 2 36 Cl ages of boulders and moraine ages of Mount Erciyes glaciation (from Appendix C) 36 Sample ID Surface Cl boulder age a Used? b (ka) Landform age c (ka) Aksu Valley ER01-12 ER01-13 ER01-14 Left lateral moraine 19.3 11.0 23.1 ± ± ± 0.9 0.6 2.0 1 0 1 20.7 ± 1.8 ER01-25 ER01-26 ER01-27 Right lateral moraine 22.2 16.6 25.3 ± ± ± 1.4 0.9 1.2 1 1 1 21.4 ± 2.6 ext [2.9] ER01-05 ER01-06 ER01-07 Right lateral moraine 12.7 15.3 6.3 ± ± ± 0.8 0.8 0.8 1 1 0 14.1 ± 1.3 ext [1.5] ER01-15 ER01-16 ER01-17 ER01-18 ER01-22 Right Lateral moraine 14.0 10.4 21.2 13.1 17.2 ± ± ± ± ± 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.9 1 1 0 1 1 13.7 ± 1.3 ext [1.5] ER01-23 ER01-24 Left lateral moraine 8.7 10.6 ± ± 0.5 0.6 1 1 9.6 ± 0.9 ext [1.1] ER01-09 ER01-10 Outwash plain 6.2 9.5 ± ± 1.0 0.5 1 1 8.7 ± 1.4 ext [1.5] ER01-19 ER01-20 ER01-21 Terminal moraine 3.3 3.9 4.6 ± ± ± 0.4 0.6 1.0 1 1 1 3.8 ± 0.4 int [0.5] ER01-04 ER01-08 ER01-11 Outwash plain 3.1 2.3 2.0 ± ± ± 0.4 0.4 0.2 1 1 1 2.5 ± 0.3 ext [0.3] ER01-01 ER01-02 ER01-03 Terminal moraine 1.0 1.5 0.9 ± ± ± 2.8 0.5 0.3 0 1 1 1.2 ± 0.3 ext [0.3] ER01-43 ER01-44 ER01-45 ER01-46 Right lateral moraine 22.8 35.0 21.2 18.1 ± ± ± ± 1.0 1.8 1.2 0.6 1 0 1 1 20.4 ± 1.5 ext [1.8] ER01-52 ER01-53 ER01-55 ER01-56 ER01-57 Moraine complex 28.3 15.2 13.5 18.5 7.2 ± ± ± ± ± 16.1 1.3 2.2 5.6 5.9 0 1 1 1 0 15.2 ± 2.0 ext [2.1] Moraine complex 11.1 8.1 7.0 8.7 10.1 8.1 8.7 9.9 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9.2 ± 0.5 ext [2.2] Üçker Valley ER01-39 ER01-40 ER01-41 ER01-47 ER01-48 ER01-49 ER01-51 ER01-64 ext [0.7] a The uncertainties of boulder ages were given at the 1 sigma level and calculated by 36 propagation of AMS reported analytical errors on Cl/Cl ratio and 20% uncertainty was assumed for the calculated nucleogenic component. b Indicates whether or not the boulder age was used for the calculation of landform age; 1: used, 0: not used. c Weighted average of boulder ages with uncertainties, at 1 sigma level, that are based on boulder-to-boulder variability and with total uncertainties which also include uncertainty 36 on production rates of Cl (in brackets; they should be used when comparing cosmogenic ages with ages obtained from other dating methods). Type of uncertainity is also shown; internal (due to the analytical errors), external (due to the spread of data). The larger of the two is reported. 214 Table 3 36 Cl ages of boulders and moraine ages of Aladaglar glaciation (from Appendix C) 36 Sample ID Surface Cl boulder age a Used? b (ka) Landform age c (ka) Hacer valley AL01-101 AL01-102 AL01-103 A 8.7 8.3 8.7 ± ± ± 0.4 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 8.56 ± 0.27 int [0.52] AL01-113 AL01-114 AL01-116 B 8.2 11.3 6.9 ± ± ± 0.4 0.6 0.3 1 1 1 8.75 ± 1.31 ext [1.39] AL01-118 AL01-119 AL01-120 C 8.3 8.1 9.9 ± ± ± 0.4 0.4 0.5 1 1 1 8.77 ± 0.58 ext [0.73] AL01-127 AL01-128 D 9.3 8.9 ± ± 0.5 0.4 1 1 9.06 ± 0.32 int [0.56] AL01-107 AL01-121 AL01-122 AL01-124 AL01-125 E 9.2 9.3 9.6 9.3 8.6 ± ± ± ± ± 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 9.25 ± 0.22 int [0.52] AL01-108 AL01-110 AL01-111 F 9.3 10.1 9.3 ± ± ± 0.3 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 9.54 ± 0.28 int [0.56] AL05-172 AL05-173 AL05-174 G 10.0 10.2 10.4 ± ± ± 0.3 0.2 0.3 1 1 1 10.21 ± 0.16 int [0.55] a The uncertainties of boulder ages were given at the 1 sigma level and calculated by propagation of AMS reported analytical errors on 36Cl/Cl ratio and 20% uncertainty was assumed for the calculated nucleogenic component. b Indicates whether or not the boulder age was used for the calculation of landform age; 1: used. All boulder ages are used c Weighted average of boulder ages with uncertainties, at 1 sigma level, that are based on boulder-to-boulder variability and with total uncertainties which also include uncertainty on production rates of 36Cl (in brackets; they should be used when comparing cosmogenic ages with ages obtained from other dating methods). Type of uncertainity is also shown; internal (due to the analytical errors), external (due to the spread of data). The larger of the two is reported. 215 References Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schlüchter, C., 2007. Paleoglacial records from Kavron Valley, NE Turkey: Field and cosmogenic exposure dating evidence. Quaternary International 164-165, 170-183. Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schlüchter, C., 2008. A case for a downwasting mountain glacier during Termination I, Verçenik valley, northeastern Turkey. Journal of Quaternary Science 23 (3), 273-285. Alley, R.B., 2000. The Younger Dryas cold interval as viewed from central Greenland. Quaternary Science Reviews 19, 213-226. Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schlüchter, C., 2006. Surface exposure dating of Quaternary palaeoglacial records from Anatolia. 4th Swiss Geoscience Meeting, Bern. Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Kubik, P., Schluchter, C., 2007. Determination of cosmogenic surface ages of paleoglaciers of southwest Anatolia and paleoclimatic interpretations (in Turkish). VI. Quaternary workshop of Turkey, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Kubik, P.W. and Schlüchter, C., 2009. Late Pleistocene Glaciations at the Uludağ Mountain. 62nd Geological Conference of Turkey. Ankara, Turkey. 216 APPENDIX G BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TURKISH GLACIERS AND GLACIATED MOUNTAINS 217 Map shows digital elevation model and locations of glaciers and glaciated mountains of Turkey. Stars indicate those mountains that have recent glaciers. Numbers are given from west to east. (1) Mount Sandıras Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) Çiçekbaba or Sandras Southwest Turkey Western Taurus Gölgeli Dağları Çiçekbaba 37.1 oN-28.8 oE 2295 Kartal Lake Middle Northwest None 3000-3500 Terminal and hummocky moraines in Kartal Lake Valley (cosmogenic 36 Cl) LGM*: 20.4±1.3 ka ago and 19.6±1.6 ka ago 218 LGM ELA, meters in Northwest Valley (cosmogenic 36 Cl) Late Glacial*: 16.5±1.1 ka ago and 16.2±0.5 ka ago 2000 References *Sarıkaya, M.A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Zweck, C., 2008, Cold and wet Last Glacial Maximum on Mount Sandıras, SW Turkey, inferred from cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling, Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 769-780. Doğu, A.F., 1993. Glacier shapes on the Mount Sandıras (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 2, 263-274. Messerli, B., 1967. The glacial and the present glacial stage in Mediterranean (in German). Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228. de Planhol, X., 1953. Glacial forms in Sandras Dağ and the limits of quaternary snow line in SW Anatolia (in French). Compte Rendu Sommaire de la Societe Geologique de France, 263265. Philippson, A., 1915. Travel and research in western Asia Minor (in German). Gotha, Petermanns Geigr. Mitteilungen Heft 1-5, 167-183. (2) Uludağ Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters Keşişdağ Northwest Turkey Independent Uludağ Kartaltepe 40.1 oN-29.2 oE 2543 Çayırlı Kilimli Karagöl Aynalı and six unnamed None 3000-3500 Terminal moraines LGM*: before 20.3 ka ago Late Glacial*: before 16.1 ka ago, 13.3 ka ago and 11.5 ka ago 2200-2330 219 References *Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Kubik, P. W., Schlüchter, C., 2009. Late Pleistocene Glaciations at the Uludağ Mountain. 62th Geological Conference of Turkey. 13-17 April 2009, Ankara, Turkey. Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Birman, J.H., 1968. Glacial reconnaissance in Turkey. Geological Society of America Bulletin 79, 1009-1026. Messerli, B., 1967. The glacial and the present glacial stage in Mediterranean (in German). Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228. Erinç, S., 1949. Research on glacial morphology of Mount Uludağ (in Turkish). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 11-12, 79-94. Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481. (3) Mount Honaz Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Southwest Turkey Western Taurus Honaz Honaz 37.7 oN-29.3 oE 2571 Northern Valley None 3600 Terminal moraines 2600 Messerli, B., 1967. The glacial and the present glacial stage in Mediterranean (in German). Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228. Erinç, S., 1957. About glacial evidences of Honaz and Bozdağ (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin 8, 106-107. 220 Erinç, S., 1955. Periglacial features on the Mount Honaz (SW Anatolia) (in Turkish). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 2, 185-187. Yalçınlar, İ., 1955. Morphological studies on glaciation of Honaz-Dag and the chain of Boz-Dag (western Turkey) (in French). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 2, 45-55. Darkot, B., Erinç, S., 1954. Geographical observations in the south-west of Anatolia (in French). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1, 149-167. Yalçınlar, İ., 1954. On the presence of the Quaternary glacial forms on Honaz Dag-and-Boz Dag (western Turkey) (in French). Compte Rendu Sommaire de la Société Géologique de France 13, 296-298. (4) Akdağ Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Southwest Turkey Western Taurus Akdağ Uyluktepe 36.6 oN-29.6 oE 3016 None 3500 Terminal moraines 2200-2400 Doğu, A.F., Çiçek, İ., Gürgen, G., Tuncel H., 1996. Geomorphology of Akdağ and its effect on human activities (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 7, 95-120. Messerli, B., 1967. The glacial and the present glacial stage in Mediterranean (in German). Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228. Onde, H., 1954. Forms of glaciers in the Lycien Massif of Akdağ (southwest Turkey) (in French). Conrés Géologique International 15, 327-335. de Planhol, X., 1953. Glacial forms in Sandras Dag and the limits of quaternary snow line in SW Anatolia (in French). Compte Rendu Sommaire de la Societe Geologique de France, 263265. Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481. 221 (5) Beydağ Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Southwest Turkey Western Taurus Beydağ 36.6 oN-30.2 oE 3086 None 3600 Terminal moraines 2400-2600 Messerli, B., 1967. The glacial and the present glacial stage in Mediterranean (in German). Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228. Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481. (6) Mount Barla Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters Southwest Turkey Central Taurus Barla Gelincik 38.1 oN-30.7 oE 2800 Northern Valley None 3750 Lateral and terminal moraines 2400 222 References Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Ardos, M., 1977. Geomorphology and Pleistocene glaciation of Mount Barla and surrounding (in Turkish). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 20-21, 151168. Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481. (7) Mount Davraz Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Davras Southwest Turkey Central Taurus Davraz 37.6 oN-30.8 oE 2637 None 3750 Terminal moraines 2400 Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Ardos, M., 1977. Geomorphology and Pleistocene glaciation of Mount Barla and surrounding (in Turkish). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 20-21, 151168. Monod, O., 1977. Geological research in the Western Taurides south of Beyşehir, Turkey (in French). Unpublished thesis, University of Paris, 442 pp. (8) Mount Dedegöl Also known as Region Mountain range name Southwest Turkey Central Taurus 223 Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters Dedegöl Dipoyraz 37.6 oN-31.3 oE 2997 A few small glaciers? 3300-3500 Lateral and terminal moraines (cosmogenic 10Be) LGM*: between 26 and 19 ka ago 2350-2400 References *Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Kubik, P., Schluchter, C., 2007. Determination of cosmogenic surface ages of paleoglaciers of southwest Anatolia and paleoclimatic interpretations (in Turkish). VI. Quaternary workshop of Turkey, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Delannoy, J.J., Maire, R., 1983. Dedegöl massif, Western Taurus, Turkey (in French). Recherches de géomorphologie glaciaiere et karstique. Bulletin de l’Association de Géographie Française 491, 43-53. Monod, O., 1977. Geological research in the Western Taurides south of Beyşehir, Turkey (in French). Unpublished thesis, University of Paris, 442 pp. (9) Geyikdağ Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km South central Turkey Central Taurus Geyikdağ 36.8 oN-32.2 oE 2850 Namaras Susam None - 224 Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters 3200 Lateral, terminal and hummocky 2000 References Çiner, A., Deynoux, M., Çörekçioğlu, E., 1999. Hummocky moraines in the Namaras and Susam Valleys, Central Taurids, SW Turkey. Quaternary Scicence Reviews 18, 659-669. Arpat, E., Özgul., N., 1972. Rock glaciers around Geyikdağ, Central Taurids (in Turkish). Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, Ankara 80, 30-35. (10) Mount Ilgaz Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References North central Turkey Ilgaz Ilgaz 41.1 oN-33.9 oE 2587 ? None 3500 ? ? Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481. (11) Bolkardağ Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Bolkarlar South central Turkey Central Taurus Bolkar Medetsiz 37.4 oN-34.6 oE 3524 225 Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters Maden Karagöl Ganimet Gökoluk A few small glaciers? 3450-3700 Lateral and terminal moraines 1900-2075 (north face) 2200-2000 (south face) References Altın, B.N., Altın, T., 2007. Distribution and effect of glacial morphology in Bolkardağ. V. Quaternary workshop of Turkey, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. Klaer, W., 1969. Glacia-morphological problems in the near east high mountains. Erdkunde 23, 3, 192-200. Birman, J.H., 1968. Glacial reconnaissance in Turkey. Geological Society of America Bulletin 79, 1009-1026. Messerli, B., 1967. The glacial and the present glacial stage in Mediterranean (in German). Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228. Blumenthal, M.M., 1956. Geology of northern and western Bolkardağ region (in Turkish). Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, Ankara 7, 153 pp. Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481. (12) Aladağlar Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name South central Turkey Central Taurus Aladağ Demirkazık 226 Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters 37.8 oN-35.2 oE 3756 Hacer Maden Körmenlik Susuz Emli and many others 1? Lolut? 3450 Terminal moraines in Hacer Valley (cosmogenic 36Cl) Early Holocene*: Between 8.6±0.3 and 10.2±0.2 ka ago 2200-1900 References *Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Sarıkaya, M.A., Zweck, C., Bayarı, S., 2009. Remarkably extensive early Holocene glaciation in Turkey. (In revision). Bayarı, S., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Nazik, L., Törk, K., Özyurt, N., Klimchouk, A. and Sarıkaya, M.A., 2003. The Extent of Pleistocene ice cap, glacial deposits and glaciokarst in the Aladaglar Massif: central Taurids Range, southern Turkey, Proceedings of XVI INQUA Congress, p. 144-145. Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Tekeli, O., Aksay, A., Ürgün, B.M., and Işık, A., 1984. Geology of the Aladağ Mountains, in Tekeli, O., and Göncüglu, M.C., eds., The Geology of the Taurus Belt: Ankara, MTA Publications, p. 143-158. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. Spreitzer, H., 1971, Recent glacier, limits of glacial and periglacials in Central Taurus (primarily the example of the Cilician Ala Dag) (in German). Mitteilungen des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereines für Steiermark, 101, 139-162. Klaer, W., 1962. Investigations on climate genetic geomorphology in the high mountains of Asia front (in German): Heidelberg, Kayserschen Verlagsbuchhandlung, 135 p. Spreitzer, H., 1958, Past and recent high levels of the glaciers of the Cilician Ala Dağ in the Taurus (in German). Innsbruck, Geographische Forschungen, 190, 265-281. 227 Spreitzer, H., 1956. Investigations in Cilician Ala Dağ in the Taurus (in German). Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft, 98, 1, 57-64. Blumenthal, M. M., 1952. The high mountains of Taurids Aladağ, recent research on its geography, stratigraphy and tectonics (in German). Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, 6, 136p. (13) Mount Erciyes Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters Central Turkey Independent volcano Erciyes Büyük Erciyes 38.5 oN-35.4 oE 3917 Aksu Üçker Öksüzdere Topaktaş Saraycık 1 (and 1 rock glacier) Aksu Valley 0.06 0.26 3550 Lateral, terminal and hummocky moraines, Outwash deposits in Aksu Valley* (cosmogenic 36Cl) LGM: 21.9±1.1 ka ago Late Glacial: 14.1±1.3 ka ago Early Holocene: 9.6±0.9 ka ago Late Holocene: 3.8±0.4 ka ago in Üçker Valley* (cosmogenic 36Cl) LGM: 20.4±1.5 ka ago Late Glacial: 15.2±2.0 ka ago Early Holocene: 9.2±0.5 ka ago 2700 (north face) 3000 (south face) References *Sarıkaya, M.A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., 2009. Glaciations and paleoclimate of Mount Erciyes, central Turkey, since the Last Glacial Maximum, inferred from 36Cl cosmogenic dating and modeling. Quaternary Science Reviews (accepted). 228 Sarıkaya, M.A., Çiner, A., Zreda, M., 2003. Late Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano (in Turkish), Yerbilimleri 27, 59-74. Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Güner, Y., Emre, Ö., 1983. Pleistocene glaciation on Mount Erciyes and its relation to volcanism. Bulletin of Geomorphology 11, 23-34 (in Turkish). Birman, J.H., 1968. Glacial reconnaissance in Turkey. Geological Society of America Bulletin 79, 1009-1026. Messerli, B., 1967. The glacial and the present glacial stage in Mediterranean (in German). Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228. Messerli., B., 1964. The glacier at Erciyes Dagh and the problem of the recent snow line in the Anatolian and Mediterranean Area. Geographica Helvetica 19 (1), 19-34. Klaer, W., 1962. Investigations on climate genetic geomorphology in the high mountains of Asia front (in German): Heidelberg, Kayserschen Verlagsbuchhandlung, 135 p. Erinç, S., 1952. Glacial evidences of the climatic variations in Turkey. Geografiska Annaler 34, 89-98. Erinç, S., 1951. The glacier of Erciyes in Pleistocene and Post-glacial epoch. Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1 (2), 82-90 (in Turkish). Blumenthal, M. M., 1938, Mount Erciyes, 3916m (in German). Die Alpen, 14, 3, 82-87. Bartsch, G., 1935. The area of Erciyes Daği and the city of Kayseri in central Anatolia. Jahrbuch der geographischen Gesellschaft zu Hannover für 1934 und 1935, 87-202. Bartsch, G., 1930, Preliminary report on a trip to Central Anatolia (in German). Jahrbuch der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Hannover. Philippson, A., 1906. A glacier at the Erdsehias-Dagh (Argaeus) in small Asia (in German). Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde Eiszeitforschung und Geschichte des Klimas. Annales de glaciologie 1 (1), 66-68. Penther, A., 1905. A journey into the territory of the Erdschias Dagh (Asia Minor) 1902 (in German). Abhandlungen der k.k. Geographischen gesellschaft in Wien 6 (1). Ainsworth W.F. 1842. Travels and researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea and Armenia. J.W. Parker, London. 229 (14) Mount Soğanlı Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Central Turkey Central Taurus Tahtalı Akdağ 38.4 oN-36.2 oE 2967 Dökülgen Aygörmez 3550 Lateral and terminal moraines 2610 Ege, İ., Tonbul., S., 2005. The relationship of karstification and glaciation in Soğanlı Mountain (in Turkish). V. Quaternary workshop of Turkey, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. (15) Mount Karagöl Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters Northeast Turkey Western Pontics Karagöl 40.5 oN-38.2 oE 3107 Karagöl Yedigöz Artabil Few small glaciers Cirque 0.08 0.4 2900 Terminal moraines 2600-2700 230 References Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. de Planhol, X., Bilgin, T., 1964. Periglacial, Quaternary glacier and current massive of Karagöl (Pontic mountains, Turkey) (in French). Revue de Géographie Alpine, 497-512. Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481. Palgrave, W.G., 1872, Vestiges of the glacial period in northeastern Anatolia. Nature, 5, 444-445. (16) Karadağ Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Northeast Turkey Western Pontics Gavur Aptalmusa 40.4 oN-39.1 oE 3331 1 Avliyana Cirque 0.045 0.15 3500 Terminal and hummocky moraines 2600-2850 Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Palgrave, W.G., 1872, Vestiges of the glacial period in northeastern Anatolia. Nature, 5, 444-445. (17) Mount Mercan Also known as Region Mountain range name Northeast Turkey Munzur Mountains 231 Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Mercan Gedik 39.5 oN-39.2 oE 3368 3600-3700 Terminal and ground moraines 2750 Türkünal, S., 1990. Mountain chains and mountains of Turkey (in Turkish). Bulletin of the Chamber of Geological Engineers of Turkey. 30, 42 pp. Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Bilgin, T., 1972. Glacial and periglacial morphology of Eastern Munzur mountains (in Turkish). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1757, 69 Palgrave, W.G., 1872, Vestiges of the glacial period in northeastern Anatolia. Nature, 5, 444-445. (18) Mount Keşiş Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters Mount Esence Northeast Turkey Independent Keşiş 39.8 oN-39.8 oE 3477 Yaylalar Peyler 3600-3700 Lateral and ground moraines 2750 232 References Akkan, E., Tunçel, M., 1993. Glacial shapes on Esence (Keşiş) mountains (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 2, 225-240. Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481. (19) Kaçkar Mountains Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) Eastern Blacksea Mountains Northeast Turkey Eastern Pontics Kaçkar Hunut Üçdoruk Altıparmak Bulut Soğanlı Kaçkar 40.9 oN-41.2 oE 3932 Kavron Göller Verçenik Lazgediği Kindevul At and many others 5 Kaçkar I Kaçkar II Kaçkar III Krenek Dübe Valley and Cirque <1 <1 3100-3200 on north face 3550 on south face Lateral, terminal, hummocky and ground moraines in Kavron Valley (cosmogenic 10Be) LGM*: between 26.0±1.2 ka and 18.3±0.9 ka ago Late Glacial*: between 13.0±0.8 ka and 11.5±0.8 ka ago in Verçenik Valley (cosmogenic10Be) 233 LGM ELA, meters LGM**: 26.1±1.2 ka and 18.8±1.0 ka ago 2300-2500 on north face 2600-2700 on south face References **Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schluchter, C., 2008. A case for a downwasting mountain glacier during Termination I, Verçenik valley, northeastern Turkey. Journal of Quaternary Science 23 (3), 273-285. *Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schluchter, C., 2007. Paleoglacial records from Kavron Valley, NE Turkey: Field and cosmogenic exposure dating evidence. Quaternary International 164-165, 170-183. Gürgen, G., 2003. Glacial morphology of North of Çapans Mountains (Rize) (in Turkish). Gazi University Education Faculty Journal 23, 159-175. Doğu, A.F., Çiçek, İ., Gürgen, G., Tuncel, H., 1996. Glacier shapes, yaylas and tourism on the Mount Üçdoruk (Verçenik) (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 5, 29-51. Doğu, A.F., Çiçek, İ., Gürgen, G.,Tuncel, H., Somuncu, M., 1994. Glacial shapes, yaylas and tourism on the Göller (Hunut) Mountain (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 3. Doğu, A.F., Somuncu, M., Çiçek, İ., Tuncel, H., Gürgen, G., 1993. Glacier shapes, yaylas and tourism on the Kaçkar Mountains (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 157–183. Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. Birman, J.H., 1968. Glacial reconnaissance in Turkey. Geological Society of America Bulletin 79, 1009-1026. Gall, H., 1966. Glaciation observations in Lasistan mountains (North Anatolian Ranges) (in German). Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft 108 (2-3), 262286. Erinç, S., 1952. Glacial evidences of the climatic variations in Turkey. Geografiska Annaler 34, 89-98. Yalçınlar, İ., 1951. Glaciations on the Soğanlı-Kaçkar mountains and Mescid Dağ (in French). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1-2, 50-55. 234 Erinç, S., 1949. Past and present glacial forms in Northeast Anatolian mountains (in German). Geologische Rundschau 37, 75-83. Leutelt, R., 1935. Glacio-geological observations in Lasistan Mountains (in German). Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde 23, 67-80. Krenek, W., 1932. Glaciers in Pontic Mountains (in German). Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 20 (1-3), 129-131. Stratil-Sauer, G., 1927. The Eastern Pontus (in German). Geographische Zeitschrift 4, 105-111. Palgrave, W.G., 1872, Vestiges of the glacial period in northeastern Anatolia. Nature, 5, 444-445. (20) Mount Mescid Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Mescit Northeast Turkey Independent Mescid Mescid 40.4 oN-41.3 oE 3239 3600-3700 Moraines 2750 Atalay, İ., 1984. Glacial morphology of Mount Mescit (in Turkish). Ege Geography Bulletin 2, 129-138. Yalçınlar, İ., 1951. Glaciations on the Soğanlı-Kaçkar mountains and Mescid Dağ (in French). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1-2, 50-55. (21) Mount Süphan Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) East Turkey Independent volcano Süphan Sandık 38.9 oN-42.8 oE 235 Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References 4058 Crater A few Hızır and unnamed Valley 3 1.5 3700-4000 Terminal moraines - Yavaşlı, D.D., Ölgen, M.K., 2008. Recent glacier change in Mount Süphan using remote sensing and meteorological data. Third international Balwois - Water observation and information system for decision for Balkan countries conference, Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia, 27-31 May 2008. Deniz, O., Doğu, A.F., Yıldız, M.Z., Saraçoğlu, H., Kerimov, G., 2003. Glacial morpholog of Süphan Dağ and its tourism potential (in Turkish). First international geography workshop on “Anatolian and Caucasian high mountains from Pleistocene to modern”, 1013 June 2003, Van. Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. (22) Mount Hasanbeşir Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters Kavuşşahap Southeast Turkey Eastern Taurus Kavuşşahap Hasanbeşir 38.2 oN-42.9 oE 3503 Northwest 1 Northwest Mountain 0.06 0.3 3400 Terminal moraines - 236 References Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. Klaer, W., 1965. Geomorphological investigations of Van Lake mountain ranges (East Anatolia) (in German). Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, N.F. 9 (3), 346-355. Schweizer, G., 1972. Climatic and geomorphological evidence of glaciations on the high-front region of Asian mountain range (Iran and East Anatolia) (in German). In: Geoecology of the high mountain regions of Eurasia. Erdwissenschaftliche Forschung 4, 221-236. (23) Balık Gölü Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References East Turkey A lake west of Mount Ağrı 39.9 oN-43.6 oE 2804 Balık Gölü 4300 Terminal moraines - Birman, J.H., 1968. Glacial reconnaissance in Turkey. Geological Society of America Bulletin 79, 1009-1026. (24) Mount Cilo Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Buzuldağ Southeast Turkey Western Taurus Cilo Uludoruk (Reşko) 37.5 oN-44 oE 237 Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References 4135 Uludoruk (Mia Hvara) Beyazsu Erinç (Suppa Durak) İzbırak (Gelyasin) and many unnamed 9 Uludoruk (Mia Hvara) East Uludoruk (Mia Hvara) Middle Uludoruk (Mia Hvara) West Erinç (Suppa Durak) İzbırak (Gelyasin) Poyraz and 3 unnamed Valley to cirque <4 < 1.5 3600 Lateral and terminal moraines 2600-2800 Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. Altınlı, İ.E., 1966. Geology of eastern and southeastern Anatolia, Bulletin of Minerals Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey 66, 35-76. Wright, H.E., 1962. Pleistocene glaciation in Kurdistan. Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 12, 131-164. Erinç, S., 1953. From Van to Mount Cilo (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 3 - 4, 84 - 106. Erinç, S., 1952. Glacial evidences of the climatic variations in Turkey. Geografiska Annaler 34, 89-98. İzbırak, R., 1951. Geographical research in Lake Van and in the Hakkari and Cilo Mountains (in Turkish). Turkish Geographical Bulletin, Ankara University 67 (4), 149 pp. Maunsell, F.R., 1901. Central Kurdistan. The Geographical Journal 18 (2), 121-141. 238 Bobek, H., 1940. Recent and Ice time glaciations in central Kurdish high mountains (in German). Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde 27 (1-2), 50-87. Ainsworth W.F. 1842. Travels and researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea and Armenia. J.W. Parker, London. (25) Mount Sat Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Mount İkiyaka or Dolampar Southeast Turkey Western Taurus Sat Dolampar 37.4 oN-44.3 oE 3794 1 Geverok Unnamed Valley < 0.8 <1 3500 Terminal moraines 2600 Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. (26) Mount Ağrı Also known as Region Mountain range name Mountain name Highest peak name Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE) Highest peak elevation, meters Ararat East Turkey Independent volcano Ağrı Büyük Ağrı 39.7 oN-44.3 oE 5165 239 Name of glacier valleys Number of recent glacier(s) Glacier name(s) Type of glacier(s) Area, km2 Length, km Recent ELA, meters Type of glacial deposits Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s) LGM ELA, meters References Several Ice cap and outlet < 10 <3 4300 Terminal moraines 3000 Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S., Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper 1386-G-1, pp. 1-30. Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory, International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160. Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege University press, İzmir, Turkey. Birman, J.H., 1968. Glacial reconnaissance in Turkey. Geological Society of America Bulletin 79, 1009-1026. Blumenthal, M.M., 1958. From Mount Ağrı (Ararat) to Mount Kaçkar (in German). Bergfahrten in nordostanatolsischen Glenzlanden. Die Alpen 34, 125-137. Blumenthal, M.M., 1956. Glaciations of Ararat (Northeast Turkey) (in German). Geographica Helvetica 11 (4), 263-264. 240 APPENDIX H SAMPLE PREPARATION PROCEDURES FOR MEASUREMENTS OF COSMOGENIC 36Cl IN ROCKS BY ACCELERATED MASS SPECTROMETRY Note: The electronic files mentioned in this appendix DiffCellsCalculator.xls AgeCalculator.xls SpikeCalculator.xls DespikeCalculator.xls are given in the Supplementary CD attached to this dissertation. 241 ROCK SAMPLES FROM THE FIELD PRETREATMENT - Crushing - Grinding - Sieving LEACHING Leach silicates in 5% nitric acid overnight Leach carbonates in milliQ water overnight - POWDERING 3 vials from each sample 1) For whole rock chemistry and other analysis 2) For total chlorine determination 3) For spare. Keep at a safe and dry place SEND TO WHOLE ROCK CHEMISTRY LAB TOTAL CHLORINE DETERMINATION SPIKE CALCULATIONS - DISSOLUTION OF SAMPLES (BOMB COOKING) Silicate samples; 6 hours in 130oC oven Carbonate samples; 3 hours at room temp CHLORINE EXTRACTION SEND TO AMS LAB 242 1. GENERAL CLEANING PROCEDURES There are designated areas in the laboratory for equipments at various stages of cleanliness. Fallowing proper procedures is essential to making sure no problems occur. Right after the usage of laboratory utensils, remove any labels, rinse them at least 3 times with tap water to prevent the samples dry inside. Don’t discard any chemicals to the sinks; place them in to the specific containers. Don’t pour samples, or crushed rocks into the sinks. Be careful with the open containers, acids and plugged in equipments. Fallow common laboratory safety rules all the time. Always recycle items such as aluminum foils, broken glass into the specific containers. Laboratory should be tidy and clean. Follow Figure 1 for cleaning laboratory dishes; DIRTY Wash with soap Rinse with MQ Rinse with NH4OH Rinse with MQ Rinse with HNO3 CLEAN Figure 1: The flowchart for cleaning procedures Washing with soap First, wash all laboratory glassware and teflon dishes with soap (Alconox-detergent powder) and sponge or scrubber. It is important to make sure that all teflon dishes are cleaned only using sponge, so they are not scratched! If they are scratched from inside, samples can be trapped on them. Glass beakers can be cleaned using scrubber, glass bottles and test tubes can be cleaned using approximate sized test tube cleaning brush. Make sure to thoroughly scrub the rims, bottoms and inside of utensils, so that there are no samples left. Since no brush will clean inside pipettes, 5% nitric acid (HNO3) should be sprayed inside. 243 After washing all material with soap under the running tap water, rinse them 3 times with milliQ water, and place them on a clean towel to let them dry. How to use MilliQ water dispenser (Barnstead Nanopure ultrapure water system Model # D4741) - Press on/off button to change from SBY (Stand by). - Wait until the MΩ-cm is about 18.0 - Turn on the hose. Fill the milliQ water container. Use milliQ water only from that container. - Press on/off button to turn to SBY. It can be shut off, if you are not planning to use for a long time (weeks, or months). Rinsing with ammonium hydroxide Next, clean with ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). Use from the cleaning bottle of NH4OH. It can be used several times. It smells bad, and vapors are toxic. This should be done under the hood. Beakers and bottles may be filled with NH4OH while test tubes and pipettes should be immersed in the bucket of cleaning NH4OH. Rinse with milliQ water 3 times. Don’t use tap water at this stage. Place on a clean towel in the specified place. Let it dry. Rinsing with nitric acid Boil some HNO3. It can be used several times. Vapors are toxic. This should be done under the hood. Rinse the same way as with the NH4OH. Let acid be in contact with cleaned surfaces for 2 minutes. Rinse with milliQ water 3 times. Place on a clean towel in the specified place. Let it dry. When it is dry, put them into the proper shelves to be used for the next time. 244 2. PRETREATMENT This section describes the physical pretreatment stages of target sample preparation. The aim of the pretreatment is to reduce the sample grain size to an appropriate size and to maximize the yield of desired grain size. Samples are first brushed to remove undesirable organics, carbonates, and dust. If the samples were not reduced in size in the field, they can be broken into fragments suitable for crushing in the lab. Then, samples are crushed, ground and sieved (Figure 2). Samples from the field Crushing Grinding Sieving Samples ready for leaching Figure 2: The flowchart for pretreatment of samples 2.1 Crushing Use a jaw crusher for crushing the rocks. The feeding size of the crusher is ~5 cm and output size is ~1 cm. First, install the crushing plates. Clean all parts of the crusher including the collection tray with compressed air gun. The machine must be clean from sand size material before and after the crushing in order to prevent the cross contamination. Place the collection tray, and turn on the machine. Always wear ear and eye protection as well as dust mask when operating the jaw crusher. Begin feeding chunks of rocks into the jaws. This machine occasionally throws out rock fragments from the jaws, so hold a wood plate cover on the jaw opening. When all the rock crushed, all of the sample in the collection tray should be approximately 1 cm in diameter. Turn off the machine. Pour the crushed sample back into the original sample bag. Clean the crusher thoroughly before starting the next sample. 245 2.2 Grinding Use a grinding machine. Start with bolting the grinding plates to the appropriate places on the grinder. When bolting the plates make sure that it is aligned with the rotating wheel. The gap between the plates determines the output size of the grinder. Thus, setting the gap is very important not to lose samples as finely grained. Place the sampling tray. Close the rotating plate doors, wear eye, ear, and respiratory protection, and start the grinder. Pour the crushed sample slowly into the feeder. If the machine jams, turn the power off, clear the jam and resume. After grinding some of the sample, look at the results. If there are too much coarse grain sample, or if it is over-pulverized, then readjust the grinding plate gap. When finished crushing the sample, pour the sample back into the original bag and clean the machine thoroughly before loading the next sample. Brush the grinding plates and interior surfaces with the stiff wire brush. Make sure there are no particles left around the plates. Blow compressed air to grinding plates and into the sample tray. 2.3 Sieving Assemble a stack of sieves as follows: pan at the bottom, a 0.3 mm opening sieve (300 micron) on top of the pan and then a 1 mm opening sieve, and a lid on the top. Pour the grinded sample into the uppermost sieve. Shake it by your hands, or use a shaker, with circular motions. Label a new clean bag with the sample name, “un-leached”, and the grain-size fractions (0.3 – 1 mm). Dump the contents of sieve 0.3 mm into the bag. Repeat until the entire sample has been sieved. Clean the sieves thoroughly before sieving the next sample. Clean them by brushing the mesh with a brass brush. 246 3. LEACHING Before leaching the samples, make sure to know the lithologies of the rocks. Silicate and carbonate rocks have different leaching procedures. An easy way to identify carbonate rocks is placing a drop of 5% HNO3 on to the rock. If it reacts vigorously, it is a carbonate. 3.1 Leaching Silicates 1) Obtain a clean 1 liter glass beaker. 2) Label the beaker on side and on the bottom with the sample name using a permanent marker. 3) Pour in crushed samples. 4) Rinse with milliQ water stir with glass sticks until the water is clear. Prevent pouring off the samples to the sink. Pour off water as much as you can. 5) Pour 5% HNO3 until it submerges all the samples and cover the top of the beaker with aluminum foil. 6) Let stand overnight (~12 h). 7) Pour out HNO3 into the waste container. 8) Rinse thoroughly with milliQ water, check acidity with pH paper. If it is neutral, pour out water as much as you can. 9) Place in a laboratory oven at 90oC degrees Celsius overnight (~12 h). 10) Place the dry, clean, leached sample in a new bag labeled as fallows; Sample name, “5% HNO3 leached”, grain size fraction (“0.3-1 mm”). 247 How to prepare 5% HNO3 1) Use this formula to dilute chemicals V1.C1=V2.C2 Where; V1: initial volume (or mass), C1: initial concentration, V2: final volume (or mass) (the sum of initial volume (or mass), V1 and the volume (or mass) of added milliQ water), C2: final concentration 2) For example: To make 2.5 liter of 5% HNO3, mix ~180 ml 70% HNO3 with enough milliQ water (~2320 ml) to make 2.5 liter solution. 3.2 Leaching Carbonates 1) Obtain a clean 1 liter glass beaker. 2) Label the beaker on side and on the bottom with the sample name using a permanent marker. 3) Pour in crushed samples. 4) Rinse with milliQ water stir with glass sticks until the water is clear. Prevent pouring off the samples to the sink. Pour off water as much as you can. 5) Pour milliQ water until it submerges all the samples and cover the top of the beaker with aluminum foil. 6) Let stand overnight (~12 h). 7) Pour out the water. 8) Rinse thoroughly with milliQ water, pour out water as much as you can. 9) Place in a laboratory oven at 90oC degrees Celsius overnight (~12 h). 10) Place the dry, clean, leached sample in a new bag labeled as fallows; Sample name, “milliQ water leached”, grain size fraction (“0.3-1 mm”). 248 How to use the laboratory oven (Thelco Laboratory Oven, Model # 130DM) 1) Press on/off button. Actual temp shows the temperature inside the oven. 2) Press TEMP button one time. Using the arrows, set the desired temperature and press SET button. This is your desired temperature. 3) Press TIMER button to set the time. Using arrows enter the desired time in hours and press START/STOP button. If you want to heat the oven continuously, press the TIMER button again. 4. POWDERING Samples and equipment need to be kept extremely clean at this stage, because of the high potential for cross contamination during powdering. Nothing should be handled with bare hands. Tweezers should be used to handle things in direct contact with samples. Only materials that will not be in direct contact with sample may be touched with gloves. Cleaning the powdering equipment 1) Wash inside of the vessels, the steel balls with soap and scrub with rough scrub sponge until the balls shine. Rinse with tap water. Note: you may touch with gloves at this step. 5% HNO3 rinsed tweezers should be used after this step to handle things in direct contact with samples. 2) Rinse balls, inside of the vessels with 5% HNO3. 3) Final rinse everything with milliQ at least 3 times and place in a glass dish lined with Kim-Wipes. 4) Using Kim-Wipes, wipe the equipment dry. Use tweezers to hold Kim-Wipes and wipe the excess water out of inside of vessels. 5) Put vessels and balls in the oven and let them completely dry at 90oC for about 10 minutes 249 Powdering 1) Place one steel ball in each large side vessels. Pour leached sample until the balls are immersed. Place the other ball on top of the samples. Place the other end of the vessels. Make sure that the two vessels match (either Right or Left). 2) Make sure that you keep track of what sample goes in each vessel. Take a piece of paper and make two columns with Left and Right headers. Write sample number under the each column. This prevent of mixing sample numbers when you are opening the vessels. 3) Tape the rim of the opening of the vessels. This will prevent of spilling samples while crushing or incase of accidental drop of the vessels. 4) Insert vessels in powdering machine. Place right vessel on right, and the left vessel on left. Crank first outer dials and then inner dials to hold vessels in place as tight as possible to prevent vessels from coming loose during shaking. 5) Powdering machine should always run with approximately two equal weight vessels. Never run just one. 6) Close safety lid and press timer button. If appropriate time and power set, press start. Appropriate timer and power sets for powdering (Retsch Mill, Model #MM 2000) Carbonates: 10 min @ power 80 Silicates: 5 min @ power 70 Collecting samples 7) Label 3 new 5 ml glass vial. Use printed sample names and a clear tape for a better labeling. Write sample number on the top of each vial cap. 8) Lay down 4 clean weighing papers on the table. Put on open 3 vials in the center of the 3 papers with clean instrument. 250 9) Remove the vessels from the machine. Remove the tapes and carefully pour the powdered sample to the weighing paper that doesn’t have a vial. Be careful at this step not to loose sample to out of the paper. 10) Remove the steel balls from the pile of sample using clean tweezers. 11) Pour sample from the paper into the vials. Use disposable plastic funnels for each sample. 12) Fill the vials as much as you can. One full of vessel of sample should fill 2 ½ vials. 13) Vacuum and clean area around powdering machine to remove dust. Prepare 3 vials of powdered samples; each is about 5 grams. 1. Vial: send to whole rock chemistry laboratory to measure major and minor element content of the rock. 2. Vial: use for total chlorine determination. 3. Vial: Keep at a safe and dry place. It is a spare for future use. Sending samples to whole rock chemistry Here, we used ActLabs Inc., Ontario Canada for measurements of whole rock chemistry. Use first vial for whole rock chemical analysis. At least 5 grams of samples is needed. 1) Close tight the cap of the vial. Make sure that it is appropriately labeled. 2) Attach a piece of paper towel by a tape around the vial to prevent breaking during shipping. Write down the sample name on the towel as well. 3) Prepare a “request for analysis” form from the ActLAb’s web site which is http://www.actlabs.com/geochem_home.htm and always refer to that web site for any changes on ordering processes 251 4) Choose “WRA+trace 4Litho” for whole rock and trace element analysis. Boron analysis doesn’t come in this package. For only silicate samples, add “B-Total (PGNAA) 0.5” analysis. You may want to know water content of the samples. ActLabs doesn’t measure water content. If needed, send a vial of powdered rock sample (about 5 grams) to SGS (http://www.geochem.sgs.com/). The analyze code is PHY09V H2O+ contained. 5) Place all packed samples and a copy of request form into a box. Send the box to Activation Laboratories Ltd. 1428 Sandhill Drive Ancaster, Ontario Canada L9G 4V5 Tel: 1.905.648.9611 or 1.888.228.5227 (ACTLABS) Fax: 1.905.648.9613 E-mail: ancaster@actlabsint.com 5. TOTAL CHLORINE DETERMINATION This procedure estimates the total Cl content of the samples for further analysis. Its precise determination is going to be made from measurement on spiked samples after the AMS measurement. Setting up diffusion cells 1) Once cells have been cleaned, make sure that they are appropriately labeled and dry. 2) Use an empty data table for diffusion cells or make your own with the following headings: Number Cell# from 1 to 12 and 13 to 24 and blank. Cell# Sample ID Mass Empty Mass in Mass Out mV ppm Cl 252 3) Cells from 1-4 and 13-16 are only for standard solutions. Don’t use cells from 1724 for carbonates. Use a piece of Teflon tape for the cells 1-12. Especially when measuring carbonates and if they are loose. 4) Standards solutions are solutions with a known concentration of Cl. Decide upon which standards to use. The range of the solutions should be in between the range of the approximate Cl content of the samples. Let say if your samples’ Cl content is in between ~10-150 ppm; 5, 50, 100, 200 ppm standards are an example of a good choice. 2 sets are standards necessary. One set is for cells from 5-12 and one set is for 17-24. Write down standard solutions and sample ID’s on the data sheet. How to make standard solutions One you prepare a set of standard solutions, it is good for a long time, as long as its cap is tight, and kept in dry place 3) Prepare a 1000 ppm NaCl stock solution 4) Use this formula to dilute chemicals V1.C1=V2.C2 Where; V1: initial volume (or mass), C1: initial concentration, V2: final volume (or mass) (the sum of initial volume (or mass), V1 and the volume (or mass) of added milliQ water), C2: final concentration 5) For example: To make 250 ml of 50 ppm standard solution, mix 12.5 ml of 1000 ppm stock solution with 237.5 ml milliQ water 5) Make up a reducing solution. Both silicates and carbonates. Put in labeled reducing bottle. For 24 cells 12.0 g KOH 0.6 g Na2SO3 64 g milliQ water 6) Make up an oxidizing solution for silicates. Put in labeled oxidizing bottle. For 24 cells. 0.8 g KMnO4 11.2 g milliQ water 3.8 ml 50% H2SO4 ! add under the fume hood 253 64 g HF ! add under the fume hood 7) Make up an oxidizing solution for carbonates. Put in labeled oxidizing bottle. For 12 cells. 0.4 g KMnO4 5.6 g milliQ water 1.9 ml 50% H2SO4 ! add under the fume hood 27 ml HF ! add under the fume hood 5 ml HNO3 ! add under the fume hood Loading standard solutions 8) Weigh empty cell and write the mass under the “Mass empty” column. Zero the balance. Use Mettler AT201 high accuracy balance. 9) Using designated pipettes, drop 0.200 ± 0.01 g standard solutions into the outer chamber of the cells which are designated for standards. 10) Weigh the cell and record the weight of the standard on “Mass in” column 11) Close the lid of the cell to prevent the evaporation of solution. Loading samples 12) Add 0.200 ± 0.01 g of sample to the outer chamber of the cells. 13) Weigh the cell and record the weight of the sample on “Mass in” column. 14) Don’t load the blank cell. Loading reducing and oxidizing solutions 15) Move all cells under the fume hood and place so that they are tilted with sample/standard solution perched on the upper side of the cell. 16) Measure 2.5 ml reducing solution to the inner chamber of the cells including the blank cell. 254 17) Measure 3.0 ml oxidizing solution to the outer chamber of the cells including the blank cell. Make sure that not to let oxidizing solution contact the sample. That’s why cells should be tilted. 18) Close cell lids and place horizontally on the table shaker. Shake for 16-20 hours at about 80 on dial. Don’t exceed 20 hours. They are ready to be measured. Measuring diffusion cells 1) Change filling solution of ion selective electrode. Make sure to rinse off electrode with milliQ. Refer to the electrode manual for detailed introduction how to use it. 2) Open the blank cell. 3) Pipette off the outer solution with the designated garbage pipette. Clear all droplets from the rim of the inner chamber and from the outer chamber with KimWipe. Be careful not to touch the inner solution! 4) Weigh cell, write down in the “Mass out” column of the data sheet. 5) Put electrode in the blank cell for at least 30 min. The bottom of the electrode should be fully immersed in the solution but should not touch the bottom of cell. Record mV potentials at the beginning and end of this period. The aim of this process is to record the blank content of the solution and to introduce the chemical characteristics of the reducing solution to the electrode to have easier and accurate reading of the samples in the further steps. Measuring samples 6) Open diffusion cells ones at a time. 7) Pipette off the outer solution with the designated garbage pipette. Clear all droplets from the rim of the inner chamber and from the outer chamber with KimWipe. Be careful not to touch the inner solution! 8) Weigh cell; write down in the “Mass out” column of the data sheet. 9) Rinse the electrode with milliQ water. Shake off any droplets of water while holding the hole on the upper side of the electrode closed. Don’t wipe with any 255 other material like paper or towel. This is the best way not to contaminate the electrode with the previous sample. 10) Put electrode inside the inner chamber of the cell and press “Measure”. If it beeps immediately, press “Measure” again. It should take about 1-2 min to measure the sample. 11) Record measurement of potential in mV and write down. Make sure it is measuring mV. 12) Rinse diffusion cells with milliQ water after use and put on clean towel to dry. Cleaning diffusion cells 1) Make sure that cells are emptied after the measurements and rinsed well with milliQ water at least 3 times. 2) Heat up about 600 ml HNO3 until boiling in an acid washed glass beaker. 3) Heat up the Diffusion Cell Cleaning Solution (D-Cell) until it is very hot. It probably not comes to a boil, but it should still be at high temperature. Use a 1 liter glass beaker to heat the D-cell. Place few broken glass sticks on the bottom of the beaker and add some water. Place D-cell bottle inside this beaker. 4) Place cells on aluminum tray, open side up. 5) Pour D-cell into the cells, outer and inner chamber. Let sit 2 min. 6) Back up D-cell into its bottle. It is good for several usages. When it is old, pour it into the waste basket for disposal and prepare a new one. If D-cell does not yet discarded, but turned to green, rather than the red, pour some K2Cr2O7 (it is in the acid storage under the fume hood) into D-Cell before use. 7) Rinse the cells with milliQ. 8) Place cells back on aluminum tray, open side up. 9) Pour the boiling HNO3 into the cells, outer and inner chamber. Let sit 2 min. 10) Back up HNO3 into its bottle. It is good for several usages. When it is old, recycle it as general cleaning HNO3. Acid from the cleaning bottle should never be used for diffusion cells. 256 11) Rinse the cells with milliQ. 12) Place them on a new towel for drying. When they are dry, check the labels and keep them in order at its drawer. How to prepare D-Cell solution 1) Using a clean beaker, measure 1 liter of H2SO4 from its original bottle which is in the acid storage cabinet under the fume hood. 2) Add 35 ml K2Cr2O7 saturation solution using the designated graduated cylinder. How to make 1000 ppm NaCl stock solution Always do by mass not by volume 1) Calculate formula weight of NaCl. NaCl = Na (23 g/mol) + Cl (35.5 g/mol) = 58.5 g/mol 2) Calculate mass fraction of Cl in NaCl. Cl/NaCl = 35.5/58.8 = 0.61 3) Each gram of NaCl contains 0.61 grams of Cl. 4) Use this formula. M1.C1=M2.C2 Where; M1: initial mass, C1: initial concentration, M2: final mass (the sum of initial mass and the mass of added milliQ water), C2: final concentration 5) For example; to make 250 g of 1000 ppm stock solution, mix 0.41 g of NaCl (60oC oven dried for 24 h) with 249.59 g milliQ water. 6) Record and write down on the bottle everything that you add Data input and calculating total Cl 257 1) Open the file “DiffCellsCalculator.xls”. An example of the view of the spreadsheet is given in Figure 3. Figure 3: A view of the DiffCellsCalculator.xls 2) Blue cells are data input cells. Input the data you were collected during the measurements. 3) Yellow cells are outputs. First four rows from the measurements of standard solutions should be as close as the known concentration. Therefore, eliminate the erroneous ones by deleting the grey cells for that standard. At the end, you should as close as the original standard solutions concentrations. Read the total Cl concentrations in ppm from the yellow cells. 4) Highlight the ppm values that you decide and write down to the laboratory data sheet. Save the excel file and close the program. 258 6. SPIKE CALCULATIONS Before dissolution of any sample, it is necessary to estimate the amount of sample and spike used, to ensure the certain AMS requirements are met. What is Spike? In nature, there are three isotopes of Chlorine (Cl); 35,36,37 Cl. 35Cl and 37Cl are stable; 36 Cl is radioactive. AMS measures the ratio of R/S: radioactive to stable; 36 Cl/(35Cl+37Cl). Due to the constraints of the AMS system (see below), a known amount of carrier should be added to sample so that a reliable R/S can be measured. This is known as spiking or isotope dilution method. Spikes have no 36Cl, but known ratio of S/S (35Cl/37Cl). How to prepare Spike stock solution? Prepare a stock solution of spike, and use from this bottle by diluting it to about 250 ppm Cl. First, 250 mg Sodium Chloride – 35 Cl (99.66% 35 Cl + 0.34%37Cl) from Sigma-Aldrich company (Lot # 125H3767) oven dried for 24 hours at 100oC. Then weighed on a precise balance (=0.2480 g) and mixed with 249.7533 g milliQ water (use diluting formulas). The resulting solution has 991.987 ppm Na35,37Cl. Note on the bottle all measurements and the concentration of Cl. The AMS requirements at the PRIME Lab (Purdue University, Indiana) were as follows: • RATIO S/S: Natural Ratio of 35Cl/37Cl (S/S) is 3.12. Addition of spike increases this ratio. The AMS can measure down to 3.12. But, precision is increased above 10. But do not exceed 40. • RATIO R/S: The precision of AMS increases with this ratio and decreases below 100x10-15. Therefore, don’t go below 100. 259 • SAMPLE SIZE: Samples (target AgCl) at the end of the extraction processes should be more than 2 mg. Make ideal target yield >8 mg of AgCl. This ensures the sufficient sample survive losses in purification and rinses. Estimating sample R/S Before acid digestion, rock’s R/S should be estimated using the age calculation spreadsheet (“AgeCalculator.xls”). Beforehand, you should need roughly estimated cosmogenic age of the sample. Open the excel file (Figure 4). Yellow areas are the input cells, blue areas are the output. Figure 4: A view of the AgeCalculator.xls 260 For each sample, copy and paste a column and enter the following data for each sample: - Sample ID - and any additional sample info: Sample location name, valley name, …etc - Sample volumetric water content: Ideally it should be measured. This is not the meteoric water content. This is the H2O content that inside the mineral structure; water of crystallization. ActLab doesn’t measure it. Sent a vial of powdered rock sample to SGS (http://www.geochem.sgs.com/). The analyze code is PHY09V H2O+ contained. If you don’t have this data enter 0.005 for silicates, LOI value from the ActLab for carbonates. - Sample bulk density: Enter 2.6 g/cm3 for rock samples - Sample thickness: It should be measured in the field during the sample collection. Enter that value in cm. - Latitude (°N): Sample latitude in decimal degrees (0-90o) - Longitude (°E): Sample longitude in decimal degrees (0-360o) - Elevation (m): Sample elevation in meters - Sea-level pressure (g/cm2): Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank - Sea-level temperature (C): Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank - Lapse rate (-K/km): Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank - Vertical movement wrt sea level (m/y; up is positive): Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank - or total movement over exposure duration (m): Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank - Topography correction factor: Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank - Snow correction factor: Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank - Geochemistry: Enter the following major element oxide results from ActLab; CO2, Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P2O5, K2O, CaO, TiO2, MnO2, Fe2O3, and minor element results in ppm; B (usually Boron is not measured as trace elements. Add Boron analysis for silicates during the order of ActLab measurements), Sm, Gd, U, Th. Enter the Cl concentration in ppm from diffusion cell measurements with a 261 fixed 5% uncertainty. If you don’t have geochemical results yet from the ActLab, use from similar previous measurements or guess from geochemistry of similar lithologies. Several trial and error iterations guessing R/S will lead to a value that produces the sample’s expected age for that particular location and chemistry. Calculating Spike amount and mass of sample 1) Open the file “SpikeCalculator.xls” (Figure 5). Yellow cells are input, green cells are output. Figure 5: A view of the SpikeCalculator.xls 262 2) Enter the ppm Cl value from the diffusion cells 3) Enter 5 for the gram rock cooked. Usually we cook 5 gram of crushed/leached sample. But sometimes, for more yield, you may want to cook more than 5 grams. 4) Enter naturally accruing R/S ratio, estimated from previous steps. 5) Calculate S/S and R/S ratios in the limits of AMS requirements by changing the spike mass. Recently, we are using only NaCl spike. Don’t use KCl spike. Enter spike concentration when you prepare a new spike solution. 6) S/S ratio should be more than 10 and R/S ratio should be bigger than 100, and yield should be bigger than 8 mg. However, ratio constraints generally take priority over yield requirements. Often several digestions are necessary to yield enough target samples. Depending on the uncertainty of the initial age and subsequent R/S estimate, ratio constraints should be applied conservatively, as an overestimate of sample age may reduce sample R/S to an unacceptable level when spiked. 7) Write down followings on a data sheet (Figure 6); Sample ID, rock type, R/S (estimated during the age calculations), estimated age, amount of spike added, expected S/S, R/S, yield, cooking count (How many times you should cook?). Figure 6: An example of data record sheet for rock digestion bombs 263 8) During the cooking of the sample, fill this data sheet. Write down bomb number and gram of rock that you add inside the bomb, and ppm concentration and the amount of spike added. Each column is for only one sample. Repeated bombs should be written in the numbered rows as much as 10. After the AMS measurements, de-spike calculations are made according to Desilets et al. (2006) by using “DespikeCalculator.xls” [Desilets, D., Zreda, M., Almasi, P.F. and Elmore, D., 2006. Determination of cosmogenic Cl-36 in rocks by isotope dilution: innovations, validation and error propagation Chemical Geology 233 (3-4), 185-195.] 7. DISSOLUTIONS OF SAMPLES In order to extract Cl from the rock sample, it should be digested by strong acids in the acid digestion bombs. A suitable bomb can be Parr # 4748 stainless steel large capacity bombs (Figure 7 and Table 1). They can contain 125 ml of solution and take about 5 grams of rock sample, and operate at maximum 250oC and at 1900 psig pressure. Figure 7: The Parr #4748 large capacity acid digestion bomb 264 Table 1: Manufacturer part list of Parr #4748 digestion bomb There must be always adequate free space above the charge in the bomb. For rock, leave at least 33% of the capacity of the cup as free space. Use 125 ml PTFE cups designed for the digestion bombs to dissolve the rock samples. Be careful not scratch the inside of the cups and always acid clean before using them. Dissolution of samples follows different procedures for carbonate and silicate rocks. 7.1 Dissolution Procedures for Silicate Samples 1) Add correct amount of rock sample (crushed and leached) to a clean PTFE cup. (This is calculated in previous section). Use a sensitive balance with a precision of 0.01 g. 2) Add correct amount of NaCl spike to the PTFE cup. (This is also calculated in previous section). Use a sensitive balance. 3) Record the exact amounts to the data sheet provided at the end of spike calculations. 4) Move the PTFE cups under the hood and arrange all bomb parts for swift assembly. 265 5) Add 5 ml of 70% HNO3 to serve as a sensible warning system of skin exposure to sample solution possibly containing HF. HNO3 is also an oxidizing agent that speeds digestion reactions in certain silicate rocks. 6) Add 40 ml of 45% HF (use baker analyzed grade), and swiftly assemble the bomb. Silicate samples will react strongly upon exposure to HF. For this reason, HF is added to the cup immediately before sealing. 7) Slide the filled cup into the bomb and raise the bottom plate slightly to release any trapped air. 8) Place the thinner corrosion disc on top of the PTFE cover and thicker rupture disc on top of the corrosion disc. Note that PTFE cover will rupture and digestion media will be sprayed from the top plate if the corrosion and rupture discs are not included in the assembly. 9) Add the pressure plate and two spring washers, topped by the compression rings. 10) Torque the screws to approximately 7 Newton-meters (60 in-lb) using a torque and Allen-head socket. 11) Place the bombs in a 130oC oven for 6 hours. The combination of acids, temperature, time and pressure will effectively dissolve all samples. 12) After digestion, remove the bombs from the oven and allow the bombs to cool to ambient temperature on an aluminum plate or a metal table top. Do not place them in water or in a freezer. The internal forces will sometimes distort the liner, making it difficult to remove the liner from the bomb body. After extended use, the tapered rim on the PTFE cup will become thin and cover may be deformed to a point where it will be impossible to maintain a tight seal. In these cases the cup and the cover must be replaced. 13) Place the bomb under the fume hood. Loosen the screws in a star pattern about one half turn per screw until they are all loose. Internal pressure may be strong. Wait until the bomb completely cooled to the laboratory temperature. 14) Slide off the sample cup from the bomb. Carefully pry the cover off. Use plastic spatula. 266 15) Add 10 ml of 0.1 M AgNO3 in to the cup. 16) Decant the content to a 250 ml Teflon centrifuge bottle. Don’t use glass bottles since HF reacts with glass! 17) Add some deionized water to sample cup and rinse the leftover sample to the centrifuge bottle. 18) Cover the top of the centrifuge bottle with a Parafilm and let it stand overnight for Cl extraction processes. How to make 0.1 M AgNO3? Add 4.25 g 99.9% AgNO3 to 250 ml deionized water. Keep it in light proof bottles. 7.2 Dissolution Procedures for Carbonate Samples Carbonate samples react strongly to acids, liberating large amount of CO2 gas. For this reason, the sample must be isolated from the acid until the bomb is fully sealed. This is accomplished by freezing the sample in a small block of ice prior to bomb loading. Preparing ice structure for loading the sample Two clean cylindrical polycarbonate vials are arranged such that the larger vial is filled with deionized water while the smaller vial inserted inside the larger vial and the assembly frozen (Figure 8). The aim is creating a negative mold of the smaller vial. 267 Figure 8: The ice structure for loading carbonate samples The exact amount of rock sample is poured into this mold. Deionized water is added on top of the sample and frozen. The method isolates the sample completely from the acid by about 5 mm of ice. Once the sample is isolated, the following loading procedure is applied. 1) Add correct amount of NaCl spike to the PTFE cup. Write down the amount added. 2) Add 20 g of cold 70% HNO3. Use refrigerated acid. 3) Move the sample cup under the hood and arrange all bomb parts for swift assembly. 4) Remove the ice structure from the cylinder by a pair of tweezers cleaned with 5% HNO3, grip the ice from its rim and place inside the sample cup. Warming the outer surface of the cylinder by rubbing by hand will make easier the ice structure to be free. 5) Swiftly close the cover of the PTFE cup and slide the cup into the bomb. 6) Place the thinner corrosion disc on top of the PTFE cover and thicker rupture disc on top of the corrosion disc. Note that PTFE cover will rupture and digestion media will be sprayed from the top plate if the corrosion and rupture discs are not included in the assembly. 7) Add the pressure plate and two spring washers, topped by the compression rings. 268 8) Torque the screws to approximately 7 Newton-meters (60 in-lb) using a torque and Allen-head socket. 9) Place the bomb at the laboratory temperature for 3 hours. Shake the bomb at least once during the digestion to encourage Cl isotopic equilibrium between gas and liquid. 10) After digestion, remove the bombs from the oven and allow the bombs to cool to ambient temperature on an aluminum plate or a metal table top. Do not place them in water or in a freezer. The internal forces will sometimes distort the liner, making it difficult to remove the liner from the bomb body. After extended use, the tapered rim on the PTFE cup will become thin and cover may be deformed to a point where it will be impossible to maintain a tight seal. In these cases the cup and the cover must be replaced. 11) Place the bomb under the fume hood. Loosen the screws in a star pattern about one half turn per screw until they are all loose. Internal pressure may be strong. Wait until the bomb completely cooled of the laboratory temperature. As the CO2 generated in non-condensable at laboratory temperatures, the bomb will be pressurized upon opening. Some skill is needed to open the bomb slowly enough so that the sample cup content is not sprayed out. Agitating the bomb before opening will considerably complicate the process. 12) Slide off the sample cup from the bomb. Carefully pry the cover off. Use plastic spatula. 13) Add 10 ml of 0.1 M AgNO3 in to the cup. 14) Decant the content to a 250 ml centrifuge bottle. 15) Add some deionized water to sample cup and rinse the leftover sample to the centrifuge bottle. 16) Cover the top of the centrifuge bottle with a Parafilm and let it stand overnight for Cl extraction processes. 269 Cleaning bomb sample cups 1) After the using the cups, they should be rinsed with water. Tap water can be used at this step. 2) Thoroughly clean inside and the inner rims of the cup and the cover with water and detergent. Be careful not to scratch the inside of the cups. Use sponge, not scrubber. Rinse the caps with milliQ water. 3) Boil about 200 ml %70 HNO3 for each cup, and pour into the cups. Cover the lid of the cup and wait at least 2 minutes. Recycle the acid for only cleaning the cups. 4) Rinse the cups with milliQ and let them dry for the next use. 8. CHLORINE EXTRACTION The goals of the Cl extraction phase are 1) to separate Cl from the rock matrix that is digested at the previous stages, 2) to collect as much as Cl as possible, 3) to remove the isobar 36S that interfere in the AMS measurement, 4) and prepare the suitable target form (AgCl for 36Cl AMS measurements). The isobaric interference of 36-Sulfur (36S) is an important problem in AMS measurements of 36Cl. Effective chemical procedures should be applied to remove S from samples. Traditionally, precipitation of BaSO4 is used to separate S from the rock matrix. S precipitation steps should be applied several times for a satisfactory separation. An alternative method uses ion exchange columns to separate S from chloride. Sample solution is passed through an exchange resin, SO4-2 is absorbed, and Cl- released. 8.1 Precipitation Method After Cl is liberated from the rock matrix, it is precipitated as AgCl under acidic conditions (pH=1 to 2) by adding 0.1 M AgNO3. Consequent steps of precipitating 270 BaSO4 are applied to remove the isobar 36 S. To do this, AgCl is dissolved under basic conditions by using high purity NH4OH, and 1ml of saturated Ba(NO3)2 is added to precipitate BaSO4. Then the sample is left at room temperature overnight. AgCl will reprecipitate if the solution is re-acidified. Each of the steps of adding BaSO4 is called “Barium steps” and applied at least 3 times. The following procedure is applied to the samples were waited overnight after the dissolution of samples in the bomb. Before Barium 1) Centrifuge for 15 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM). 2) Decant acid which stayed over the sediment. Be careful not to pour sediment which has AgCl. 3) Add small amount of milliQ and repeat step 1 and 2 two more times. 4) Check the pH of the decanted liquid by a pH paper. If it has high pH, repeat the neutralizing steps one more time. First Barium 5) Add 20 ml of NH4OH to dissolve AgCl. 6) Add 1 ml of Ba(NO3)2 to precipitate BaSO4. 7) Let stand overnight. 8) Centrifuge 20 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM). 9) Transfer liquid to 200 ml glass centrifuge bottles. Use pipette if needed. Add small amount of milliQ and repeat step 5 and 4 two more times. 10) Acidify using concentrated HNO3 until you see white precipitate which is AgCl. Care should be applied to acidify the strong basic solution. Each time add a drop of acid and let it react before adding more. 271 11) Add small amount (~1-2 cm3) of AgNO3. Just squirt in. 12) Let stand overnight. Second Barium 13) Decant acid. Keep sediment. 14) Add 10 ml of NH4OH to dissolve AgCl. 15) Add 1 ml of Ba(NO3)2 to precipitate BaSO4. 16) Let stand overnight. 17) Centrifuge 20 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM). 18) Transfer liquid to 50 ml glass test tubes. 19) Acidify using concentrated HNO3 until you see white precipitate. 20) Add small amount of AgNO3. 21) Let stand overnight. Third Barium 22) Decant acid. Keep sediment. 23) Add 10 ml of NH4OH to dissolve AgCl. 24) Add 1 ml of Ba(NO3)2 to precipitate BaSO4. 25) Let stand overnight. 26) Centrifuge 20 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM). 27) Transfer liquid to a new 50 ml glass test tube. 28) Acidify using concentrated HNO3 until you see white precipitate. 29) Add small amount of AgNO3. 30) Let stand overnight. 272 Final target preparation 31) Decant acid. Keep sediment. 32) Rinse sediment in milliQ water 5 times. Use a clean new Pasteur pipette for each sample. 33) Transfer well rinsed AgCl into a labeled plastic vial using a Pasteur pipette. 34) Centrifuge 10 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM) 35) Remove excess water using a Pasteur pipette or just pour off. 36) Place the vial in the oven at 60oC for 24 hour to dry the sample. 37) Tap dried sample into a clean weighing dish or a weighing paper. Weigh it on the sensitive balance. Note the mass and transfer the sample back to the vial. Don’t touch the sample with bare hands or any tweezers. Use the weighing dish or paper to transfer. 38) Cap the vial and store them in a dark and dry place before sending to the AMS lab. 8.2 Ion Exchange Columns We have developed a chemical technique for separation of Cl from S using ion exchange columns. Prior to separation in columns, one step of BaSO4 precipitation is applied to remove the bulk of S. Then the samples are loaded to exchange resin using a peristaltic pump. First, Cl is eluted from the column, and then S. Finally, Cl can be precipitated as AgCl as described in previous section. Four samples can be loaded to our four-column system at the same time. The separation process takes less than 3 hours, much shorter than traditional precipitation method (which takes several days), and Cl recovery is higher than ~80%. 273 Resin Analytical grade DOWEX 1X8-400 mesh resin in Cl- form is used. Column description Polyethylene columns are used. Column length is 6 cm. Internal diameter of the column is 8 mm. 2 cm3 of saturated resin is loaded in the column. The column is always saturated 1 cm above the top of the resin. A polyethylene filter disc used to close the bottom of the column. Two polyethylene column tapping one into the inlet and one into the outlet is fitted (Figure 9). Figure 9: The setup of the ion exchange column Setup 125 ml capacity polypropylene funnel and a stopcock are used for feeding the sample solutions. Cole Parmer Ismatic-Tygon tubes are used for tubing. All fittings and adapters are polyethylene. Cole Parmer (#07519-10 - Masterflex L/S) peristaltic pump with four 274 cartridges is used to maintain a constant flow to the columns. The setup of the system is shown in Figure 10. Figure 10: The laboratory setup of the ion exchange columns Conditioning the resin Always refer to the manufacturer catalog of the resins before using them. If the resin is in a form different than desired, the resin should be conditioned. The following steps are applied in order to condition the Cl- form resin to the OH- form resin. Conditioning is made only one and conditioned resins can be used for the rest of the exchange process. 1) Weigh about 0.95 g dry resin into a clean small glass baker. This much of dry resin makes about 4 cm bed of saturated resin in the column. 2) Dehydrate the resin with adding ~3 ml 18MΩ water. 3) Transfer the slurry resin into the column by using a clean pipette. 4) Wait until the resin completely settles by gravity. 275 5) Set up the system and turn on the pump. 6) Transfer 1.5 M NH4OH for at least 2 hours at very slow rate (0.2 ml per min). 7) Never let fluid level drop below resin which will make the resin dry and useless. 8) Meantime, perform a visual test for Cl by adding 3 drops of 1 M AgNO3 to a test tube containing 5 ml of eluant. If the test is positive (i.e. the AgCl precipitate is visible), continue to conditioning and performing the test again. Continue until the test is negative. 9) Neutralize the resin by transferring 10 ml 18MΩ water at the slow rate. 10) The resin is now in the form of OH- and ready to use. Separation The following procedure is used on samples with at least one barium precipitation applied to remove bulk S. The sample is in 20 ml basic solution. 1) Adjust the flow rate of the pump to 2 ml per minute. 2) Place a waste container at the outlet of the column. 3) Load the sample into the inlet funnel. 4) Never let fluid level drop below resin. When all solution is finished in the funnel, the next solution should be added in order to prevent the drying of the resin in the column. 5) Rinse the column with 20 ml of 18MΩ water by pouring it into the funnel. 6) After it is rinsed with milliQ water, place a clean centrifuge tube at the outlet of the column. Add 1 ml of 0.1 M AgNO3 and 1 ml of 70% HNO3 to the centrifuge bottle. The amount will wary depending on the Cl concentration. Add more if necessary. 7) Rinse the column with 140 ml of 0.01 M HNO3 and collect the eluant into the centrifuge bottle. You will see a white cloudy precipitate of AgCl when Cl- is exchanged in the resin. 276 8) Remove the centrifuge bottle and replace the waste container. Preparation of the column for the next sample set 9) Rinse the column with 60 ml of 0.1 M HNO3. This will remove all the remaining Cl and undesired S. 10) Rinse the column with 20 ml of 18MΩ water. 11) Rinse the column with 20 ml of 1.5 M NH4OH to prepare for the next sample. 12) Load the next sample. Final target preparation 1) Let the centrifuge bottle stand overnight. 2) Decant acid. Keep sediment. 3) Rinse sediment in milliQ water 5 times. Use a clean new Pasteur pipette for each sample. 4) Transfer the AgCl into a labeled plastic vial using a Pasteur pipette. 5) Centrifuge for 10 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM) 6) Remove excess water using a Pasteur pipette or just pour off. 7) Place the vial in the oven at 60oC for 24 hour to dry the sample. 8) Tap dried sample into a clean weighing dish or a weighing paper. Weigh it on the sensitive balance. Note the mass and transfer the sample back to the vial. Don’t touch the sample with bare hands or any tweezers. Use the weighing dish or paper to transfer. 9) Cap the vials and store them in a dark and dry place before sending to the AMS lab. 277 APPENDIX I FIELD DESCRIPTIONS, ATTRIBUTES, GEOCHEMICAL AND ISOTOPIC ANALYTICAL, AND SPIKE DATA OF SAMPLES USED IN COSMOGENIC AGE CALCULATIONS AND CLIMATIC RECORDS Note: The electronic files mentioned in this appendix Pictures of Samples SampleData.xls MoraineAgeCalculator.xls ClimateData.xls are given in the Supplementary CD attached to this dissertation. 278 FIELD DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES Mount Sandıras (Samples used in appendix B) Sample SA02-609 Collected on 15 August 2002. Rounded serpentinite block. Boulder is rooted in the matrix, cleaved along the structural planes into slabs; unpolished, rough surface. Sampled from top surface. 1.5×1.2×0.8 m 36 (length×width×height). Yielded Cl age of 22.1 ± 3.3 ka (ka: thousand calendar years, errors are in 1σ). Topo measurements at 0o, 45 o, 90 o, 135 o, 180 o, 225 o, 270 o, 315 o from azimuth North: [0,0,4,7,13,7,5,0]. No picture. Sample SA02-610 Collected on 15 August 2002. Rounded boulder. Boulder is rooted on a horizontal moraine crest. Sampled from top surface. 1×0.8×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 19.6 ± 1.0 ka. [0,0,4,7,13,7,5,1]. No picture. Sample SA02-611 Collected on 15 August 2002. Rounded and rooted boulder on the moraine crest. Block is cracked, but steel on piece. On the lower side, matrix is being eroded away. Sampled from top surface. 1.5×1×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 20.6 ± 2.1 ka. [0,0,4,7,13,7,5,2]. No picture. Sample SA02-612 Collected on 15 August 2002. Rounded and rooted boulder on the horizontal moraine crest. Some pieces spalling on top. Sampled from top central surface. 1.6×1×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 17.2 ± 2.9 ka. [0,0,3,5,14,9,6,0]. No picture. Sample SA05-613 Collected on 2 August 2005. Rectangular, semi-rounded serpentinite boulder. Well rooted in the matrix. Placed on the horizontal moraine crest. Sampled from top of the boulder which is inclined 10o to the east. Harder mineral relicts evident on the surface. 0.7×0.5×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 5.1 ± 0.3 ka. [0,0,11,17,20,24,18,4]. See pictures SA05-613-1.jpg and SA05-613-2.jpg Sample SA05-616 Collected on 2 August 2005. Rounded and rooted boulder. Placed on 30o slopping moraine surface to the north. Sampled glacially sculpted top surface which is inclined 10o to the west. Sampled at the edge of boulder. 279 1.5×1.5×1.2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 16.5 ± 1.1 ka. [0,0,2,10,13,13,4,0]. See pictures SA05-616-1.jpg and SA05-616-2.jpg Sample SA05-617 Collected on 2 August 2005. Angular, semi-rounded, rooted boulder. Placed on the sharp, bouldery, 10o north sloping moraine crest. Sampled from 20o east inclined top surface. Surface is pitted. 1.3×1×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 16.2 ± 0.5 ka. [0,6,22,17,15,14,7,0]. See pictures SA05617-1.jpg and SA05-617-2.jpg Sample SA05-618 Collected on 3 August 2005. Rooted, rounded on edges, boulder. Placed on the horizontal moraine crest. Cracked and pitted surface. Sampled on the edge of the boulder. Top surface is inclined 20o to northeast. 1×1×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 20.6 ± 1.3 ka. [0,0,3,5,14,9,6,0]. See pictures SA05-618-1.jpg, SA05-618-2.jpg and SA05-6183.jpg Sample SA05-619 Collected on 3 August 2005. Rounded, rooted, and sculpted by ice, on the horizontal moraine crest. Cracked and spalled on top, but most surface is original (smooth glacial shape). Sampled from top surface, on the center. 2×1.5×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 34.7 ± 1.3 ka. [0,0,5,10,12,6,4,0]. See pictures SA05-619-1.jpg and SA05-619-2.jpg Mount Erciyes (Samples used in appendix C) Sample ER01-01 Collected on 12 August 2001. Angular dacite block. Sampled from the center of flat top surface. Placed on horizontal moraine surface. 0.7×0.5×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 1.0 ± 2.8 ka. Topo measurements at 0o, 30o, 60o, 90o, 120o, 150o, 180o, 210o, 240o ,270o,300o,330o from azimuth North: [0,0,10,15,26,28,31,30,32,21,0,0]. See picture ER01-01.jpg Sample ER01-02 Collected on 12 August 2001. Rounded agglomerate block. Sampled from the triangular eroded top surface. 1.5×1.5×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 1.5 ± 0.5 ka. [0,0,10,15,26,28,31,30,32,21,0,0]. See picture ER0102.jpg 280 Sample ER01-03 Collected on 12 August 2001. Rectangular basalt block. Sampled from the edge of flat top surface. 0.6×0.4×0.4 m. 36 Yielded Cl age of 0.9 ± 0.3 ka. [0,0,10,15,26,28,31,30,32,21,0,0]. See picture ER0103.jpg Sample ER01-04 Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0104-OP (OP=Outwash Plain). Collected on outwash plain. Rounded, smoothed, polished, red stratified boulder. Sampled from the flat top, polished surface. 1.5×1.5×1 m. 36 Yielded Cl age of 3.1 ± 0.4 ka. [0,3,4,11,14,20,13,8,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-04.jpg Sample ER01-05 Collected on 13 August 2001. Sub-rounded, smoothed, red stratified, polished boulder. Sampled from the edge of flat top surface. Collected on the moraine crest, near its highest point. 1×0.8×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 12.7 ± 0.8 ka. [0,0,8,16,13,19,12,8,8,2,0,0]. See picture ER0105&06.jpg Sample ER01-06 Collected on 13 August 2001. Sub-rounded, smoothed, red stratified boulder. Sampled from the 10-15o inclined top surface. 1.5×1.5×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 15.3 ± 0.8 ka. [0,0,8,16,13,19,12,8,8,2,0,0]. See pictures ER0105&6.jpg and ER01-06&07.jpg Sample ER01-07 Collected on 13 August 2001. Well rounded, sculpted by ice, red stratified boulder. Sampled from the polished top surface which inclined 15o. 2×2×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 16.3 ± 0.8 ka. [0,0,8,16,13,19,12,8,8,2,0,0]. See picture ER01-06&07.jpg Sample ER01-08 Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0108-OP. Collected on an outwash plain which has smaller boulders; below the nearby bigger bouldery outwash plain. Rectangular, red stratified volcanic rock. Top surface has some 1-3 cm spallings. Sampled from the unspalled places of top surface. 1.5×1.3×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 2.3 ± 0.4 ka. [0,0,8,16,13,19,12,8,8,2,0,0]. See picture ER0108.jpg Sample ER01-09 Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0109-OP. Collected on an outwash plain which has boulder lines; second from the lower end. Sub-rounded, glacially 281 sculpted, basalt. Rooted in the matrix. Sampled from the edge of the top surface which is inclined 20o. 1.3×0.9×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 6.2 ± 1.0 ka. [0,3,4,11,14,20,13,8,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-09.jpg Sample ER01-10 Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0110-OP. Collected on outwash plain. Rounded, glacially sculpted, polished block. Rooted in the matrix. Sampled from the top surface. 2×2×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.5 ± 0.5 ka. [0,3,4,11,14,20,13,8,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER0110.jpg Sample ER01-11 Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0111-OP. Collected on outwash plain. Sub-rounded, glacially sculpted, polished block which is a part of a fourboulder line. There of them are touch each other. Unrooted. Sampled from the polished top surface. 4×3×2.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 2.0 ± 0.2 ka. [0,3,4,11,14,20,13,8,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-11.jpg Sample ER01-12 Collected on 13 August 2001. Rounded on edges, glacially smoothed, polished basalt. Placed on the crest of the moraine. Sampled from the edge of top surface. 1×1×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 19.3 ± 0.9 ka. [0,0,3,10,17,20,23,10,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-12.jpg Sample ER01-13 Collected on 13 August 2001. Rounded, pyramidal shape basalt. Sampled from the glacially polished top surface. 1×0.4×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 11.0 ± 0.6 ka. [0,0,3,10,17,20,23,10,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-13.jpg Sample ER01-14 Collected on 13 August 2001. Angular, black rock which has questionable polish surface. Boulder is not rooted in the matrix. Sampled near the edge of the top surface. 1.5×1×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 23.1 ± 2.0 ka. [0,0,3,10,17,20,23,10,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-14.jpg Sample ER01-15 Collected on 14 August 2001. Sub-rounded, smooth, rooted, glacially polished, red dacite. Sampled near the edge of the polished top surface. 1.5×1.5×1.3 m. Yielded 36 Cl age of 14.0 ± 0.7 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-15.jpg Sample ER01-16 Collected on 14 August 2001. Angular block. Boulder 282 rests on other blocks. Sampled near the edge of the polished top surface. 1.5×1.5×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 10.4 ± 0.6 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-16.jpg Sample ER01-17 Collected on 14 August 2001. Sub-rounded red dacite; smoothed and polished by ice. Boulder is not rooted in the matrix. Sampled at the edge of the polished top surface. 2×1×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 21.2 ± 0.9 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture ER0117&18.jpg Sample ER01-18 Collected on 14 August 2001. Rounded dark dacite. Some glacial polish left on top surface. Block is not rooted in the matrix. 2×2×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 13.1 ± 0.6 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture ER0117&18.jpg Sample ER01-19 Collected on 14 August 2001. Originally named as ER0119-LIA (LIA=Little Ice Age). Red dacite boulder. Glacial sculpted and polish top surface. There are abundant likens on the surface of the boulder. Sampled near the edge. 4×2×2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 3.3 ± 0.4 ka. [0,0,11,35,15,22,20,15,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER0119&20.jpg Sample ER01-20 Collected on 14 August 2001. Originally named as ER0120-LIA. Sampled on glacially smoothed flat top surface. 3×2×2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 3.9 ± 0.6 ka. [0,0,11,35,15,22,20,15,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER0119&20.jpg Sample ER01-21 Collected on 14 August 2001. Originally named as ER0121-LIA. Yielded 36Cl age of 4.6 ± 1.0 ka. [0,0,11,35,15,22,20,15,4,0,0,0]. No Picture. Sample ER01-22 Collected on 14 August 2001. Glacial sculpted red dacite boulder; Rooted in the matrix. Boulder has weathered and un-polished surface. Sampled from pyramidal top. Placed almost horizontal moraine crest. Very close to the modern moraine. Sampled near the edge. 2×1.5×1.5 m. Yielded 36 Cl age of 17.2 ± 0.9 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-22.jpg 283 Sample ER01-23 Collected on 14 August 2001. Rectangular, glacial sculpted and polished, grey dacite block; rooted in the matrix. Sampled at the edge. 2×0.7×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.7 ± 0.5 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-23.jpg Sample ER01-24 Collected on 14 August 2001. Sub-rounded, glacial polished block; part of a group of many blocks piled up with no matrix between. Sampled from near the edge of one of the pyramidal side; 30o slope. 1×1×1 m. Yielded 36 Cl age of 10.6 ± 0.6 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-24.jpg Sample ER01-25 Collected on 15 August 2001. Rounded, glacially smoothed and polished block. Boulder is not rooted and sits on a 10o slope; on the crest. Possibility of rolling is low. Sampled from the edge of a nicely polished top surface. 1.5×1×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 22.2 ± 1.4 ka. [0,0,9,8,14,17,12,7,6,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-35.jpg Sample ER01-26 Collected on 15 August 2001. Sub-rounded, rooted red dacite. Placed on 8o sloping surface on the crest; possibility of rolling is low. Top of the boulder is sculpted and polished by ice. Sampled at the edge. 1.5×1.5×0.8 m. 36 Yielded Cl age of 16.6 ± 0.9 ka. [0,0,9,8,14,17,12,7,6,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-26.jpg Sample ER01-27 Collected on 15 August 2001. Rounded, smoothed red dacite. Some polish left at the surface. Placed on horizontal crest. It is rooted on one side only. 1×0.8×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 25.3 ± 1.2 ka. [0,0,9,8,14,18,12,7,6,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-27.jpg Sample ER01-39 Collected on 16 August 2001. Sub-rounded red dacite. Boulder is eroded, but shows evidence of polish. Block is rooted and placed on the horizontal moraine crest. Sampled near the edge. 1×0.8×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 11.1 ± 0.5 ka. [24,17,8,0,0,8,13,18,20,22,21,27]. No Picture. Sample ER01-40 Collected on 16 August 2001. Rounded, glacially smoothed and polished grey dacite. Sampled on the center. Block is rooted and placed almost on the crest, on 5o slope. 1.2×1×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.1 ± 0.4 ka. 284 [24,17,8,0,0,8,13,18,20,22,21,27]. No Picture. Sample ER01-41 Collected on 17 August 2001. Large grey dacite; chemically eroded. There are few algae on top surface which is inclined 15-20o. Rooted. The only available block around. Others are very small pebbles. 2×2×1 m. 36 Yielded Cl age of 7.0 ± 0.8 ka. [15,13,0,0,0,9,13,16,18,21,18,23]. No Picture. Sample ER01-43 Collected on 17 August 2001. Sub-angular, polished, rooted red dacite. Sampled from the top pyramidal surface. Placed at the end of the moraine on a flat crest with a several blocks. 1.5×1×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 22.8 ± 1.0 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,5,13,14,12,22,18]. See picture ER01-43.jpg Sample ER01-44 Collected on 17 August 2001. Sculpted and polished red dacite. Placed on 10o sloping moraine crest. Rooted. Half of the sample is collected from the pyramidal 10o inclined top surface and half from the 30-35o inclined other side. 1×0.6×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 35.0 ± 1.8 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,5,13,14,17,13,5]. See picture ER01-44.jpg Sample ER01-45 Collected on 17 August 2001. Sub-rounded, irregular red dacite. Rooted. One side of the block is eroded, other side is polished. Placed at the same surface as sample ER0144, on the moraine crest with 10o slope. 1.5×1.2×1.2 m. 36 Yielded Cl age of 21.2 ± 1.2 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,5,13,14,17,13,5]. See picture ER01-45.jpg Sample ER01-46 Collected on 17 August 2001. Rounded boulder. Sampled on the edge of polished top. Rooted on the horizontal moraine crest. 1×1×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 18.1 ± 0.6 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,5,13,14,17,13,5]. See picture ER01-46.jpg Sample ER01-47 Collected on 17 August 2001. Angular block. Sampled at the edge of the top surface. Top surface has weathering pits. 1.5×1×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.7 ± 0.5 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,10,16,17,13,3]. See picture ER01-47.jpg Sample ER01-48 Collected on 17 August 2001. Sub-angular, glacially sculpted and polished boulder. Weathering pits about 2 cm deep. Sampled on the top. Rooted on 10o moraine slope. 2.5×1.5×1.2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 10.1 ± 0.4 ka. 285 [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,10,16,17,13,3]. See picture ER01-48.jpg Sample ER01-49 Collected on 17 August 2001. Angular boulder; has nice glacial crescent marks on the surface. Sampled on top near the edge. Rooted on the moraine crest with 10o slope. 1.3×0.8×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.1 ± 0.4 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,10,16,17,13,3]. See picture ER01-49.jpg Sample ER01-51 Collected on 17 August 2001. Angular block. Sampled on the center of polished top. Placed on the horizontal crest of the moraine. 1.5×0.7×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.7 ± 0.5 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,15,15,7,0]. See picture ER0151.jpg Sample ER01-52 Collected on 25 September 2001. A big brown dacite boulder on the crest of left lateral moraine. Strong root. No chemical and physical alteration. Sampled top 1 cm, on an inclination of 5o. 3×5×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 28.3 ± 16.1 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,18,19,7,0]. See picture ER01-52.jpg Sample ER01-53 Collected on 25 September 2001. Big brown dacite boulder shows well preserved glacial erosional shapes. No physical or chemical alteration. Sampled on a 10o inclined surface with 2 cm depth. Rooted. 1.5×1×0.5 m. Yielded 36 Cl age of 15.2 ± 1.3 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,18,19,7,0]. See picture ER01-53.jpg Sample ER01-55 Collected on 25 September 2001. Brown dacite boulder shows well preserved glacial erosional shapes. No physical or chemical alteration. Sampled on a 20o inclined surface in 1 cm depth. Strongly rooted. 1×0.8×0.8 m. 36 Cl age of 13.5 ± 2.2 ka. Yielded [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,15,23,7,0]. See picture ER01-55.jpg Sample ER01-56 Collected on 25 September 2001. Boulder shows well preserved glacial erosional shapes. Brown dacite. On the crest of the moraine. No physical or chemical alteration. Sampled on a 15o inclined surface with 1.5 cm thickness. 1×0.6×0.2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 18.5 ± 5.6 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,15,23,7,0]. See picture ER01-56.jpg Sample ER01-57 Collected on 26 September 2001. Very big boulder shows well preserved glacial erosional shapes. Brown dacite. No 286 physical or chemical alteration. Sampled on a 25-30o inclined surface with 1 cm depth. 3×5×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 7.2 ± 5.9 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,15,23,7,0]. See picture ER01-57.jpg Sample ER01-64 Collected on 26 September 2001. Boulder shows well preserved glacial erosional shapes. No physical or chemical alteration. Sampled on a 10o inclined surface. 0.7×0.8×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.9 ± 0.7 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,12,18,17,13,3]. See picture ER01-64.jpg Aladağlar (Samples used in appendix D) Sample AL01-101 Collected on 21 August 2001. Rounded limestone boulder; sculpted by ice. Boulder has traces of original polished surface. Rooted. Sampled on the top surface. 1.5×1×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.65 ± 0.42 ka. [10,19,16,8,8,13,11,6,11,0,10,17]. See picture AL01101.jpg Sample AL01-102 Collected on 21 August 2001. Well rounded limestone block; smoothed by ice. Polish removed by weathering. Pits and groves some 3 mm deep. Placed on the next ridge to the north of sample AL01-101. Both samples are from moraine that contain abundant red clay matrix. Sampled on the top center surface. 1×1×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.25 ± 0.51 ka. [16,17,19,5,12,12,8,6,10,9,9,15]. See picture AL01-102.jpg Sample AL01-103 Collected on 21 August 2001. Bedrock surface. Limestone. Collected on a 3.5 m deep, 4 m wide plucked out surface by ice on the direction of glacial flow. Yielded 36 Cl age of 8.74 ± 0.49 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,10,25,30,20,5]. See picture AL01-103.jpg Sample AL01-107 Collected on 22 August 2001. Rounded limestone boulder. Not rooted. Surface has weathering about 1-2 cm deep. Sampled on top. 3×1.5×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.24 ± 0.46 ka. [24,17,4,3,10,19,22,30,30,15,16,27]. See picture AL01-107.jpg Sample AL01-108 Collected on 22 August 2001. Rounded, rooted limestone boulder. Placed on the crest of the moraine. Top surface 287 has 2-3 cm deep chemical weathering. Sampled 20 cm away from the edge on the top surface. 4×4×2 m. Yielded 36 Cl age of 9.32 ± 0.34 ka. [18,18,16,20,16,14,19,21,23,13,25,25]. See picture AL01108.jpg Sample AL01-110 Collected on 22 August 2001. Rounded glacially sculpted limestone boulder. Sampled from top. Chemically weathered surface has 1-2 cm deep grooves. 3×2×2 m. 36 Cl age of 10.13 ± 0.54 ka. Yielded [21,12,2,6,0,4,11,17,19,10,29,27]. See picture AL01110.jpg Sample AL01-111 Collected on 22 August 2001. Rounded and rooted limestone boulder. Shows some physical and chemical weathering. Sampled from top. Placed almost flat moraine crest. 5×2×2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.27 ± 0.53 ka. [21,12,2,6,0,4,11,17,19,10,29,27]. See picture AL01111.jpg Sample AL01-113 Collected on 25 August 2001. Limestone boulder rounded and rooted in a clayey-rocky matrix. Cracked and eroded on top and sides. Placed in a channel probably a melt water channel. It is 10 m from a roché montonée where the sample AL01-103 collected. 1.6×1×1.2 m. Yielded 36 Cl age of 8.19 ± 0.42 ka. [34,11,3,0,16,24,40,34,22,26,23,32]. See picture AL01113.jpg Sample AL01-114 Collected on 25 August 2001. Bedrock on the plucked side of a roché montonée. Collected on a 3.5 m deep, 0.75 m wide plucked out surface on the direction of glacial flow. Maximum angle of plucked side is 70o. Yielded 36Cl age of 11.34 ± 0.58 ka. [34,11,3,0,38,44,48,40,22,26,23,32]. See pictures AL01114-1.jpg and AL01-114-2.jpg Sample AL01-116 Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded, slightly eroded, rooted limestone boulder; shows original surfaces. Sampled top centre surface. Boulder is placed on horizontal moraine surface. 1.3×1×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 6.93 ± 0.32 ka. [34,11,3,0,16,24,40,34,22,26,23,32]. See picture AL01-116.jpg 288 Sample AL01-118 Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded, glacial shaped limestone boulder. Some weathering pits on top, maximum 5 mm deep which shows good indication of stability. Block is rooted on 10o sloping moraine crest in its lower end. Sampled top centre surface. Boulder is placed on horizontal moraine surface. 4×3×3 m. Yielded 36 Cl age of 8.29 ± 0.41 ka. [37,31,23,1,35,32,38,42,37,33,34,39]. See picture AL01118.jpg Sample AL01-119 Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded, glacial shaped limestone boulder. Broken to pieces. Sampled top surface. Boulder is not rooted. It sits on smaller blocks on the crest of the moraine. Its vertical position indicates that it has not rolled or otherwise changed position. 3×2×4 m. Yielded 36 Cl age of 8.07 ± 0.41 ka. [33,22,14,0,20,33,37,33,23,24,34,35]. See pictures AL01119-1&120-1.jpg and AL01-119-2.jpg Sample AL01-120 Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded, glacially sculpted and rooted boulder. It shows little weathering on top. Placed on the crest of the moraine. Sampled on top surface. 6×4×5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.88 ± 0.46 ka. [48,43,39,2,21,33,32,36,31,31,45,46]. See pictures AL01119-1&120-1.jpg and AL01-120-2.jpg Sample AL01-121 Collected on 25 August 2001. Well rounded grey limestone block. It shows little erosion. It is placed on the end moraine before the lake. 6×4×2.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.33 ± 0.56 ka. [40,43,28,20,7,10,15,32,40,40,13,27]. No Picture. Sample AL01-122 Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded limestone block. It shows little erosion and grooves. It is placed on the slope of the moraine, but this is the height point in area. There are soil developments around the boulder. 5×3×7 m. 36 Yielded Cl age of 9.61 ± 0.36 ka. [45,42,13,0,0,13,20,23,8,0,10,35]. No Picture. Sample AL01-124 Collected on 25 August 2001. A huge rounded and fractured limestone block. There are some grooves on the surface of it. It is in the hummocky area, but at the edge. 20 m from the terminal moraine. Sampled on the top 10o inclined surface. 10×5×6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.28 ± 289 0.54 ka. [50,40,12,0,0,0,0,10,5,0,17,42]. No Picture. Sample AL01-125 Collected on 25 August 2001. A huge rounded and fractured limestone block. Eroded on top. Placed at the edge of terminal moraine. Sampled on the top 20o inclined surface.10×5×8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.60 ± 0.51 ka. [45,15,0,0,13,20,20,20,7,0,20,40]. No Picture. Sample AL01-127 Collected on 25 August 2001. Fractured limestone block. Eroded on top. Placed on a small moraine close to the valley. 4×3×2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.27 ± 0.52 ka. [20,7,0,0,10,18,20,13,17,20,20,20]. No Picture. Sample AL01-128 Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded limestone block. Placed on the same moraine with sample AL01-127. 5×2×3 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.90 ± 0.36 ka. [31,34,26,10,4,22,28,33,34,14,23,33]. No Picture. Sample AL05-172 Collected on 22 July 2005. Rounded chemically weathered limestone block. Rooted and cracked. Placed very close to the river on the most extensive moraine. Sampled on the top flat surface. 2×1×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 10.01 ± 0.32 ka. Topo measurements at 0o, 45 o, 90 o , 135 o, 180 o, 225 o, 270 o, 315 o from azimuth North: [13,16,19,6,10,17,17,21]. See pictures AL01-172-1.jpg, AL01-172-2.jpg, AL01-172-3.jpg and AL01-172-4.jpg Sample AL05-173 Collected on 22 July 2005. A huge limestone block; Cracked at top, rooted very well. Sampled on the 5o inclined top surface. Placed on a lower surface than the sample AL05-172. 15×20×8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 10.22 ± 0.24 ka. [12,17,24,13,8,10,18,20]. See pictures AL01173-1.jpg, AL01-173-2.jpg, AL01-173-3.jpg and AL01173-4.jpg Sample AL05-174 Collected on 22 July 2005. A huge limestone block. Placed on the most extensive moraine. Sampled on the 15o northeast inclined top surface 20×30×15 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 10.36 ± 0.25 ka. [12,15,20,10,13,16,18,22]. See pictures AL01-174-1.jpg, AL01-174-2.jpg, AL01-1743.jpg, AL01-174-4.jpg and AL01-174-5.jpg 290 Pictures of Samples FOLDER CONTAINS THE DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF SAMPLES TAKEN IN THE FIELD ATTRIBUTES, GEOCHEMICAL AND ISOTOPIC ANALYTICAL, AND SPIKE DATA OF SAMPLES THAT USED IN COSMOGENIC AGE CALCULATIONS ARE GIVEN IN FILE SampleData.xls A WORKBOOK TO CALCULATE AVERAGE MORAINE AGE FROM MULTIPLE SAMPLES IS GIVEN IN MoraineAgeCalculator.xls LONG TERM PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE DATA OF TURKEY USED FOR INTERPOLATION TO THE MODELED MOUNTAINS ARE GIVEN IN FILE ClimateData.xls 291 APPENDIX J TURKISH GEOGRAPHICAL NAME INDEX AND THEIR MEANINGS IN ENGLISH 292 Name Descriptions Ağrı (Ararat) The mountain where the Noah's Ark is believed to have landed. Akdağ White mountain. “Ak” means white, and “dağ” means mountain. Aksu White water. “Ak” means white, and “su” means water. Aladağlar Speckled mountains. “Ala” means speckled in color, and “dağlar” means mountains. Altıparmak Six fingers. “Altı” means number six, and “parmak” means finger. Aptalmusa Silly Musa. “Aptal” means silly, and “musa” is a male name given after the prophet Moses. Aygörmez Out of vision of moon. “Ay” means moon, and “görmez” means doesn’t see or not visible. Aynalı With mirror. “Ayna” means mirror, “lı” at the end is the preposition with. Balık Gölü Fish Lake. “Balık” means fish, “Göl” means lake, “ü” at the end is the preposition. Beyazsu White water. “Beyaz” means white, and “su” means water. Beydağ Mister mountain. “Bey” means mister or gentleman, and “dağ” means mountain. Bolkar Plenty of snow. “Bol” means plenty, and “kar” means snow. Bulut Cloud. Buzuldağ Glacier mountain. “Buzul” means glacier, “dağ” means mountain. Çamardı Behind of the pine tree. “Çam” means pine tree, and “ardı” means behind it. Çarık Tepe Sandal hill. “Çarık” mean sandal, “Tepe” means hill. Çiçekbaba Flower father. “Çiçek” means flower, and “baba” means father. Çıralıoluk Tepe Resinous kindling channel hill. “Çıra” means resinous kindling, and “oluk” means channel, “Tepe” means hill. Dağ Mountain. 293 Dağı The mountain (e.g. Erciyes Dağı). Dağlar Mountains. Dağları The mountains (e.g. Kaçkar Dağları). Dedegöl Grandfather lake. “Dede” means grandfather, and “göl” means lake. Demirkazık Iron stake. “Demir” means iron, and “kazık” means stake. Dere Creek. Dikkartın Steep hill. “Dik” means steep, and “kartın” is used for rocky hills. Dökülgen Thing that can be poured. Doruk Peak. Emli(k) Untimely born lamb or goat kid. Erciyes (Argaeous) Named after the Macedonian king Argaeus I who lived in 678 – 640 BC. Esence Windy. Eski Acıgöl Old brackish lake. “Eski” means old, “acı” means brackish for water, and “göl” means lake. Ganimet Loot. Gavur Infidel. Gedik Crevice. Gelincik Poppy. Geyikdağ Deer mountain. “Geyik” means deer, and “dağ” means mountain. Gökoluk Sky-blue channel. “Gök” means sky-blue, and “oluk” means channel. Göl Lake. Gölgeli Dağları Shadowy mountains. “Gölgeli” means Shadowy, “Dağlar” means mountains. “ı” at the end is the preposition. Göller Lakes. “Göl” means lake, “ler” at the end makes the meaning plural. Hacer Rock or Stone [In Arabic]. 294 Hızır An immortal person believed to come in time of need. Godsend man. İkiyaka Two bank, or two side. “İki” means number two, and “yaka” means two side of a place, e.g. bank of a stream. Karadağ Black mountain. “Kara” means black, and “dağ” means mountain. Karagöl Black lake. “Kara” means black, and “göl” means lake. Karagüllü With black rose. “Kara” means black, and “gül” means rose. “lü” at the end is the preposition. Kartal Gölü Eagle Lake. “Kartal” means eagle, “Göl” means lake. “ü” at the end is the preposition. Kartal Tepe Eagle Hill. “Kartal” means eagle, “Tepe” means hill. Kartın Rock hill. Kaya(ç) Rock. Keşiş Monk. Keşişdağ Monk mountain. “Keşiş” means monk, and “dağ” means mountain. Kilimli With rug. “Kilim” means rug, “li” at the end is the preposition. Körmenlik Castle place. “Körmen” or “kermen” means castle, and “lik” is the preposition. Lazgediği Laz people’ Crevice. People who live in the South Caucasus, especially in northeast Turkey are called “Laz”, “gedik” means crevice, “gediği” means crevice of something (or somebody). Maden Mining. Medetsiz Helpless. Mercan Coral. Mescid(t) Small mosque. Masjid [In Arabic] Munzur Prankster. Öksüzdere Orphan creek. “Öksüz” means orphan, and “dere” means creek. Perikartını Fairy hill. “Peri” means fairy, and “kartın” is used for rocky hills. “ı” 295 at the end is the preposition. Poyraz Boreal. Northeast wind. Sandık Chest or Box. Saraycık Small palace. “Saray” means palace, and “cık” at the end makes the meaning smaller. Soğanlı With onion. “Soğan” means onion, and “lı” at the end is the preposition. Süphan Short form of Subhanallah which means “Glorious is Allah”. Susam Sesame. Susuz Waterless. “Su” means water, and “suz” gives without to the meaning. Tahtalı Woody. “Tahta” means wood, and “lı” at the end is the preposition. Taş Rock, stone. Topaktaş Pile of rocks. “Topak” means lump or pile, and “taş” means rock. Üçdoruk Three peaks. “Üç” means number three, and “doruk” means peak. Üçker Thrice. Uludağ Almighty mountain. “Ulu” means almighty, and “dağ” means mountain. Uludoruk Grand peak. “Ulu” means grand, and “doruk” means peak. Ulugöl Tepe Grand lake hill. “Ulu” means grand, and “göl” means lake, “Tepe” means hill. Uyluktepe Femoral hill. “Uyluk” means femoral, and “tepe” means hill. Yaylalar Summer camping grounds. “Yayla” means summer camp, and “lar” makes the meaning plural. Yedigöller Seven lakes. “Yedi” means seven, and “göl” means lake. “ler” at the end makes plural. Yedigöz Seven eyes. “Yedi” means seven, and “göz” means eye. 296 APPENDIX K THE FORTRAN CODE FOR GLACIER MODEL 297 ! This program simulates valley glaciers using a central ice flow-line model. Adapted ! partly from Oerlemans et al., (1998) [Oerlemans, J., Anderson, B., Hubbard, A., ! Huybrechts, P., Johannesson, T., Knap, W.H., Schmeits, M., Stroeven, A.P., ! van de Wal, R.S.W., Wallinga, J. and Zuo, Z., 1998. Modelling the response of glaciers ! to climate warming. Climate Dynamics 14 (4), 267-274.] ! The climate projection files (t.txt for temperature and p.txt for precipitation) should be ! in the same directory with the model run. The format of climate files as follows: ! column 1 is for distance from the head of the glacier in increments of dx, column 2 is ! for elevation, column 3-14 are for monthly climate values (Jan-Dec). Save this code in a ! text editor with an *.f extension and then go to the model directory and type g95 ! filename.f. Hit enter and run a.exe to start the model. Output files will in the output.txt, ! diagnostic.txt and gl.txt files. parameter (m=21) !number of grids of model parameters and climate projections ! for all arrays first dimension is x, the direction down valley, and second time real b(m),crit(m,0:1),diff(0:m+1,0:1),flux(0:m+1,0:1), 1 h(0:m+1,0:1),hmean(0:1),hs(0:m+1,0:1),mb(0:m,0:1), 1 slope(0:m,0:1),volume(0:1),tau(0:m,0:1), 1 us(0:m,0:1),width(0:m),xcounter(0:m),dist(m) 1 1 real bmean,count,c2,dt,f1,g, gradref,Lref,mbmeanax, rhoi,rog,sommb,xl integer dx,dx2,i,ii,n,npy,mode,t,mm ! positive degree day parameters for ablation of ice/snow real sigma,ddfs,ddfi,toffset,pamp real sl_temp(12),prec(12) real orig_sl_temp(12),orig_prec(12) real surf_temp(0:m,12),surf_prec(0:m,12),snow,acc(m) real orig_surf_temp(0:m,12),orig_surf_prec(0:m,12) real pdd(m),sum,abl(m) ! some constants sigma=3.95 ! standard deviation of monthly temperatures [C] ddfs=0.003 ! degree day factor for snow [m/day/C] ddfi=0.008 ! degree day factor for ice [m/day/C] rhoi=911 ! density of ice [kg/m^3] g=9.8 ! acceleration due to gravity [m/s^2] dx=100 ! grid spacing (m) 298 npy=500 ! number of time steps per year for numerical stability n=100000 ! total number of time steps (200 years default) f1=0.5E-16 ! a constant [m^6/s/N^3] ! intermediate values dx2=2*dx ! double the grid spacing dt=1./npy ! time step: how many years is one step [year] rog=rhoi*g ! specific weight of ice [N/m^3] ! First read in temperature as a function of month and distance (dx) along ! glacier. This information must contained in the file t.txt in the same folder open(13,file='t.txt',status='old') do i=1,m read (13,*) dist(i),b(i),(orig_surf_temp(i,j),j=1,12) h(i,0)=0.0 hs(i,0)=h(i,0)+b(i) width(i)=1. ! glacier width along transect (cross section). enddo close(13) ! First read in precipitation as a function of month and distance (dx) along ! glacier. This information must contained in the file p.txt in the same folder open(14,file='p.txt',status='old') do i=1,m read (14,*) dist(i),b(i),(orig_surf_prec(i,j),j=1,12) enddo close(14) ! Open some files to output model results to open(2,file='output.txt') open(3,file='diagnostics.txt') open(4,file='gl.txt') ! Search through different values of temperature and precipitation ! to see how the glacier changes. To just make one model run, set ! these values below to the desired values (eg index_temp=1,1,1) do index_temp=1,20,1 299 do index_prec=1,4,1 ! Convert these index terms into some climate parameters. For present ! day values index_temp=1 and pamp=1 toffset=index_temp-1 pamp=index_prec do i=1,m do mm=1,12 surf_temp(i,mm)=orig_surf_temp(i,mm)-toffset surf_prec(i,mm)=orig_surf_prec(i,mm)*pamp enddo enddo ! Glacier elevation hs equals ice thickness h plus valley elevation b do i=1,m h(i,0)=0.0 h(i,1)=0.0 hs(i,0)=h(i,0)+b(i) hs(i,1)=h(i,0)+b(i) enddo ! boundary conditions at the head of the glacier t=0 slope(1,t)=(hs(2,t)-hs(1,t))/dx h(1,t)=h(2,t) hs(1,t)=h(1,t)+b(1) tau(1,t)=rog*slope(1,t)*h(1,t) us(1,t)=f1*tau(1,t)*tau(1,t)*tau(1,t)*h(1,t) hs(0,t)=hs(1,0)+dx*tan(slope(1,t)) diff(1,t)=f1*rog**3*h(1,t)**5 diff(1,t)=diff(1,t)*((hs(2,t)-hs(0,t))/dx2)**2 c diff(1,t)=diff(1,t)*width(1) ! time loop do 900 ii=0,n volume(t+1)=0. hmean(t+1)=0. t=0 xl=0. hs(m+1,t)=0. diff(m+1,t)=0. do 50 i=2,m slope(i,t)=(hs(i-1,t)-hs(i+1,t))/dx2 tau(i,t)=rog*slope(i,t)*h(i,t) 300 c 50 us(i,t)=f1*tau(i,t)*tau(i,t)*tau(i,t)*h(i,t) diff(i,t)=f1*rog**3*h(i,t)**5 diff(i,t)=diff(i,t)*slope(i,t)**2 diff(i,t)=diff(i,t)*width(i) if(diff(i,t).gt.1) then crit(i,t)=dx**2/(4*diff(i,t)) if(dt.gt.crit(i,t))then write(*,*)diff(i,t),i,ii stop 'instability' endif endif continue ! Calculate glacier mass balance here ! Positive Degree Day formulation, calculated at start (ii.eq.0) ! and every year (mod(ii,npy).le.0.001). if (ii.eq.0.or.mod(ii,npy).le.0.001) then do i=1,m acc(i)=0.0 ! snow accumulation pdd(i)=0.0 ! number of positive degree days sum=0.0 ! intermediate term in pdd formulation do mm=1,12 ! calculate month by month ! Calculate how much snow has fallen in one year. If the temperature ! is less than or equal zero degrees all of the rain is assumed to have fallen ! as snow. If the temperature is greater than zero degrees none of the ! rain is assumed to have fallen as snow. if(surf_temp(i,mm).le. 0)then snow=surf_prec(i,mm) else snow=0 endif acc(i)=acc(i)+snow/(0.91*1000.0) ! calculate positive degree days. sum=sum+(0.3989*exp(-1.58*abs(surf_temp(i,mm)/sigma) !**1.1372)+max(0.00,surf_temp(i,mm)/sigma))*30.4 enddo pdd(i)=sum*sigma enddo ! Have there been enough positive degree days this year to melt all ! of the snowfall which fell this year? If so, melt some ice as well 301 ! (first if option). Otherwise just melt some snow (second if option) do i=1,m if(acc(i)/ddfs.le.pdd(i))then abl(i)=(pdd(i)-acc(i)/ddfs)*ddfi+acc(i) else abl(i)=pdd(i)*ddfs endif ! mass balance is ice accumulation minus ice ablation mb(i,t)=acc(i)-abl(i) enddo endif ! end of mass balance routine ! Calculate how glacier responds to this mass balance ! Differential equation is ! change in glacier height with time = ! divergence of the mass flux + mass balance do 75 i=2,m h(i,t+1)=h(i,t)+dt/(2*dx**2)*((hs(i+1,t)-hs(i,t))* 1 (diff(i+1,t)+diff(i,t))-(hs(i,t)-hs(i-1,t))* 1 (diff(i,t)+diff(i-1,t)))+mb(i,t)*dt if(h(i,t+1).lt.0.) h(i,t+1)=0. hs(i,t+1)=h(i,t+1)+b(i) volume(t+1)=volume(t+1)+h(i,t+1)*width(i)*dx if(h(i,t+1).gt.0) xl=i 75 continue hmean(t+1)=volume(t+1)/(m-1) do 385 i=2,m h(i,t)=h(i,t+1) hs(i,t)=hs(i,t+1) 385 continue h(1,t)=h(2,t) hs(1,t)=hs(2,t) 900 continue ! end of main time loop ! output model results to the screen and to data files write(*,*) "Temperature dep:",toffset, +"Precipitation fac:",pamp,"Glacier Length",xl*0.1 write(20,*) toffset,pamp,xl*0.1 302 ! ! output fields for output.txt: glacier elevation, ground elevation glacier thickness, mass balance, surface velocity do i=1,m write(2,*) hs(i,t),b(i),h(i,t),mb(i,t),us(i,t),toffset,pamp ! output fields for diagnostics.txt: accumulation, ablation, surface temperature, ! number of positive degree days, mass balance, temperature depression, ! precipitation factor write(3,*) acc(i),abl(i),surf_temp(i,7),pdd(i), +mb(i,t),toffset,pamp enddo ! output fields for gl.txt: temperature depression, precipitation factor, glacier length ! write(4,*) toffset,pamp,xl*0.1 enddo end of index_temp loop ! enddo end of index_prec loop close(2) close(3) 999 end 303 APPENDIX L SUPPLEMENTARY CD The supplementary CD includes these electronic files. Folder and File names Appendix H Files DiffCellsCalculator.xls AgeCalculator.xls SpikeCalculator.xls DespikeCalculator.xls Appendix I Files Pictures of Samples SampleData.xls MoraineAgeCalculator.xls ClimateData.xls Size (KB) 27 348 28 63 Folder 84 54 2,143