ELT Theorists and important names in ELT
Transkript
ELT Theorists and important names in ELT
ELT THEORISTS AND IMPORTANT NAMES 2 ASHER James 3 AUSUBEL David?? 4 BACON Francis 5 BERLITZ 6 BROWN Douglas 7 BRUNER Jerome 8 CHARLES A. Curran 9 CHARLES Fries et al. PREPARED BY KENANAKARSLAN Visit: www.kenanakarslan.com 1 ALWRIGHT Dick Dick Alwright ve arkadaşları grammar öğretildikten sonra paragraf ödevini yazmayı başaramayan öğrenciler deneyiminden sonra yöntemleri sorgulamaya başlıyor. If he language teacher's management activities are directed exclusively the learners are solving communication problems in the target language, then language learning will take care of itself...' Bunlar product of learning'den (grammar ve kelime öğretimi) learning process'e geçmiş. Yani dilin amacı iletişimdir. Postmethod (bir metoddan ziyade alternatif teknik ve stratejiler). Exploratory practice ile T sınıfın yaşam kalitesini belirlemeli ve anlamalıdır. Daha sonra bir Learning Puzzle belirlenmeli, bilgi toplanmalı ve puzzle çözmenin farklı yolları aranmalı ve bir sonraki seviyede ne yapılacağı kararlaştırılmalıdır. (Bak.: Ivan ILLICH: Deschooling; Richard SCHMIDT; Michael LONG) TPR= Comprehension Approach=Comprehension-Based Approach. A professor of psychology. The approach is based on the coordination of speech and action. Asher defines TPR method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the Kinesthetic sensory sysem. The S assimilates information and skills at a rapid rate. He says T is a director; Ss are actors. Harkens back to Gouin's Series Method which affected D.M. Ausubel's meaningful learning vs. rote learning. Influenced by Piaget (and other cognitivists) the most important factor is what the learner already knows. Meaningful so that Ss relate, subsume new information. Behaviorist. Behaviorists like him say one is born a tabula rasa, a blank slate and all learning is the result of outside stimuli (Bak.: John LOCKE, PAVLOV, SKINNER, WATSON, THORNDIKE; aksi görüş için CHOMSKY) D.M. is the brainchild of him. Ticari dil okullarında D.M. uygulamış Gouin'den esinleniyor. Berlitz wanted to immerse Ss in language by imitating children's learning process. (Bak. Gouin) Ego enhancement motivasyon için ana etken. Bunun için adımlar: 1- Need for an exploration (being overweight), 2- Activity (going to a gym), 3- Stimulation (Desire to lose weight), 4- new knowledge (new slim body), 5- Ego enhancement (Positive mood of being slim) Constructivist. Bruner says language is the most significant tool for cognitive development. He observed how adults employ language to support children's development (Scaffolding). He also says formats and routines provide opportunities for children language development by creating contexts for them to predict meaning. Bruner's LASS (Language Acquisition Support System)= Adults provide a framework of scaffolding helping children to learn. In contexts that are one step ahead of children lead them to response (Some strategies mothers or adults use for scaffolding: motherese=teacherese= caretaker speech= foreigner talk Developed C.L.L. İn 1972. C.L.L. is patterned upon counselling and learning techniques developed by CURRAN. Ts are language counsellor; Ss are clients and emotionally delicate. 1940s. A structuralist linguist: Language is a set of system rule governed in sound and form. 11 COFFIELD Frank et al. 12 CUISENNAIRE George 13 DEWEY John 14 EDGE Julian 15 FREIRE Paula 16 FREUD 17 GAGNE Robert 18 GARDNER Howard 19 GATTEGNO Caleb PREPARED BY KENANAKARSLAN Visit: www.kenanakarslan.com 10 CHOMSKY Noam 1960s. He says speakers have a knowledge of underlying abstract rules (Universal Grammar= Languages share basic properties and parameters useful for language transfer) by which they understand and create novel utterances (through LAD:Language Acquisiton Device: like an empty box). Language is not a product of habit formation but rather of rule formation. Acquiring a language is a procedure whereby people use their own thinking process, or cognition (their minds are not a tabula rasa as behaviorists say (Bak.: PAVLOV, SKINNER, WATSON, THORNDIKE, BACON, LOCKE) to discover rules of the language themselves. COGNITIVE APPROACH appeared as a result of this view: Learners are actively responsible for their learning by hypothesizing and testing their hypotheses; errors are inevitable; deductive learning or teaching. He opposed the assumptions of structuralism (prescriptive + descriptive study of language form and use unlike traditional view which is prescriptive) and criticised it heavily by emphasizing that there is an underlying level for all utterances of the native speakers. The theory opposed to the empricist theory (pedagogically audiolingualism, psychologically behaviorism and linguistically structuralism). It emphasized mental activity and proposed that humanbeings have the capability to learn a language. It is the inborn ability instead of practice (drilling, memorizing, instructing) that enabled humanbeings to obtain rules of a language and comprehend or produce unlimited numbers of utterances (Lexical approach opposes this: production is not unlimited, chunks/collocations/utterances are limited Bak.: Michael LEWIS) (Ayrca Chomsky'nin linguistic competence'ına communicative competence'ı ile cevap veren Dell HYMES) Coffield uzun bir öğrenci tipi listesi yapmış (Bak.: Cale GATTEGNO) Cuisennaire Rods Constructivist. Active learning. Cooperative Language Learning=Collaborative Learning. Maximum use of cooperative activities so Ss scaffold eachother=team work. It is an extension of C.L.T, learner centered. Critical thinking; communicative competence; Cooperation vs. competition Hataları 3 ana kategoriye sokar: 1- Slips (öğrencinin kendisinin düzeltebilecekleri), 2Errors (konuyu bilmediği için yaptığı hatalar, yardıma ihtiyaç duyar), 3- Attempts (Hakim olmadıkları konuda söylemeye çalışırken ortaya çıkan hatalar. Mistake: Konu biliniyordur ama gözden kaçar; Error: Konu bilinmediği için yapılan hata Freirean Approach/Participatory approach: Content-based gibi ama farkı matematik, fen gibi alan derslerini değil daha insanın gündelik yaşamına yönelik işsizlik, kadın hakları gibi konuları L2 aracılığıyla öğretmeyi hedefler Focused on sub-conscious (and BRIGGS; they are both behaviorists and constructivists- geçiş yapmışlar) Combination-information processing. Breaking down of the instruction process into 'conditions of learning' Intelligences. Kazazedeleri incelerken beyin hasarlarından yola çıkıyor. İnsan zekasında baskın olan özellikler öğrenim tarzını oluşturur der. The Silent Way=Cognitive Code Approach. Shows certain principles of Cognitive Approach but not directly. He believes that learning a language is a process just as babies and young children learn a language. We integrate "new" into ourselves making learning automatic by encouraging students to discover rather than memorize. Bu yüzden T is silent (Bak.: Noam CHOMSKY; George CUISENNAIRE) Series Method. Action Series. Affected D.M. He was not acclaimed much in his era. Almanca öğrenmeye çalışmış ezberleyerek ancak 3 yaşındaki yeğeni kendi dilini çok akıcı bir şekilde öğrenmiş bunu görünce, we can learn like children demiş sıralı ve kısaltılmış cümleler halinde öğretmeye dayalı yöntemini geliştirmiş. (Bak.: Berlitz ve D.M.) NLP is an alternative form of therapy developed in 1970s. Grindler and Bandler examined successful people's thought patterns, beliefs, and behaviors to draw a conclusion as to how people become successful.Thought + emotions NLP trains the Ss to eliminate their negativity and decrease anxiety and transform them into positive ways 20 GOUIN GRINDLER John and BANDLER Richard 22 HALLIDAY Michael 23 HYMES Dell 24 ILLICH Ivan 25 JOHNSON Keith 26 KRASHEN Stephen PREPARED BY KENANAKARSLAN Visit: www.kenanakarslan.com 21 İngiliz dil bilimci. Systemic functional grammar (sistemik işlevsel dil bilgisi) yaklaşımıyla uluslararası etkide bir dil bilgisi modeli ortaya koymuştur. Halliday (1975) erken çocukluk dönemiyle ilgili yedi dil işlevi tanımlar. Bu dil işlevlerinin dördü, çocukların fiziksel, duygusal ve sosyal ihtiyaçlarına yardımcı olur. Bu işlevler, araçsal (instrumental), düzenleyici (regulatory), etkileşimsel (interactional) ve kişisel (personal) işlevlerdir. Diğer üçü ise, deneyimsel (heuristic), imgesel (imaginative) ve anlatımsal işlevlerdir. Seven basic functions of language: 1- Instrumental (araç olarak kullanılır), 2regulatory (Control others' behavior), 3- Interactional (Interacting with others), 4Personal= personal emotions and meaning expression, 5- Heuristic: using L to learn and discover, 6- Imaginative: to create world of imagination, 7- representational: using L to communicate information. Communicative competence: the ability to use and interpret the language appropriately and effectively according to where, when, whom,and why you are talking to. The context in short, plays a crucial role in shaping the language used during the interaction. (Chomsky'nin linguistic competence'ına eleştirisi: It is inadequate for communication skills in L2. Chomsky's linguistic competence is too limited because it does not justify social and functional rules of the language) Deschooling society kitabı var. Formal eğitimin amacını sorgular. Dil öğreniminde formal eğitime ihtiyaç varsa neden anadilde çocuk daha başarılı. Anadilde daha çok maruz kalıyor + motivasyon + dil kullanım fırsatı= Başarı. O yüzden 1-Exposure 2Motivation 3- Opportunity to use önemli (Bak.: Dick Alwright) PPP sürecinde deep-end-strategy'yi öne sürer = Donne BYRNE ise bunu tekrar eder. Natural Approach'u Tracy TERREL ile yayınlamıştır. Developing communicative competence through meaningful exposure =comprehensible input= i + 1 = input hypothesis. Also MONITOR, AFFECTIVE FILTER hypotheses. Communication and Acquisition vs Analysis. L1'e izin var. (D.M.'de yoktu) 1980'lerde Rogers (Bak.: ROGERS) 'ın fikrini geliştirip Affective filter teorisini ilerletiyor ve C.L.L.'ye ilham verdiler. MONITOR MODEL of LANGUAGE ACQUISITON: (5 Hypotheses): 1- The Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis: Sub-conscious and conscious focus on language (L1 is acquired, but L2 is generally learned); 2- The Natural Order Hypothesis: Morphemes are acquired in a predictable order; 3- The Monitor Hypothesis: Acquisition (not learning) is responsible for fluency. Learning functions as a monitor.; 4- The Input Hypothesis: Ss acquire L2 when they receive comprehensible input.; 5- The Affective Filter Hypothesis: Ss cannot acquire a language unless they feel confident, relaxed and diverted. (Ayrıca Bak.: Tracy TERREL; Meryl SWAIN's output hypothesis) 28 LEWIS Michael Lexical Approach. He developed lexical approach. Focuses on the exclusive need for building vocabulary knowledge in the foreign language. Concentrates on lexis, or words and word combinations. Unlike Chomsky L.A. suggests that only a small proportion of language consists of entirely novel creations, the rest; however, consists of multi word chunks which are used in everyday interaction. Bak.: Noam CHOMSKY 29 LOCKE John 30 LONG Michael 31 LOZANOV Georgi 32 NAIMAN Neil 33 NUNAN David 34 PAPERT Seymour 35 PAVLOV 36 PIAGET Jean PREPARED BY KENANAKARSLAN Visit: www.kenanakarslan.com 27 KUMARAVADIVELU B. post-method pedagogy: T are knowledgeable, skillful, and autonomous people who have adequate amount of information to design their own method based on practice. T meets Ss social and pedagogical needs with 'practicality, particularity, and possibility parameters. Behaviorist. (Bak.: Francis BACON, PAVLOV, SKINNER, WATSON, THORNDIKE; aksi görüş için CHOMSKY) Interaction hypothesis: Dil comprehensible input yanı sıra interaction ile daha iyi gelişir der. There are two forms of the Interaction Hypothesis: the "strong" form and the "weak" form. The "strong" form is the position that the interaction itself CONTRIBUTEs to language development. The "weak" form is the position that interaction is simply the way that learners FIND LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES, whether or not they make productive use of them. (Strong) Focus on form: Planlı bir içerik ve dil yapısı; (Weak) Focus on content: içerik aracılığıyla yeni formla karşılaşma. Suggestopedia in 1979. Bulgarian psychologist. Human brain can process great amount of material given the right conditions of learning like relaxation. When limitations to learning are "desuggested", we can make better use of our mental capacity. No psychological barriers. İyi bir öğrencinin karakterini sıralamıştır. 1- Tolerance of ambiguity, 2- Self-esteem, 3High aspiration, 4- Goal orientation, 5- Perseverance (sebat). Bak.: Joan RUBIN ve Irene THOMPSON The Chomskyan revolution in linguistics drew the attention of linguists and language teachers to the "deep structure" of language, while psychologists took account of the affective and interpersonal nature of learning. As a result, new methods were proposed, which attempted to capitalise on the importance of psychological factors in language learning. David Nunan (1989: 97) referred to these methods as "designer" Constructivist; Inventor of LOGO; Children have a natural curiosity to construct meaning. Behaviorist. Pavlov's dog; Classical conditioning; stimulus-response (Bak.: Skinner, Watson, Francis Bacon; J. Locke; Thorndike) (Constructivist) Observed progressive stages of development in human mind (Bak.: Ausubel) In 1970 designer methods were developed (Bak.: Nunan DAVID and designer methods). Piaget'ye göre çocuk sürekli etrafıyla etkileşim içindedir. Nesneleri deneyimler. Piaget bu etkileşimden ve deneyimlerden intellectual (zihinsel) gelişimi nasıl etkilediğine bakar. Teorisine göre: Öğrenme problemle karşılaştıklarında onlara karşı eylemleriyle gerçekleşir. Learning is not imitated (behaviorists say) or innate (cognitivists say); it is constructed by children through active engagement. Cognitive development occurs through assimilation (no change in childs behavior or inner representation of a language) and accomodation (adjusting to features of the environment; restructuring in L2 or reorganizing te mental representation of a language) 38 RESNICK Mitchell Constructivist 39 ROGERS Carl Humanistic thinker. Humanist Thinkers like him insisted that people are unique individuals who respond in their unique way to any given situation. All living creatures are motivated to live up to their potential; but are blocked by environmental and personal problems. (Bak.: Charles Curran; Krashen) C.L.L.i inspire etmiştir. 40 RUBIN Joan ve THOMPSON Irene 41 SCHMIDT Richard 42 SKINNER Bernard F. 43 SWAIN Meryl 44 TERREL Tracy PREPARED BY KENANAKARSLAN Visit: www.kenanakarslan.com 37 PIENEMANN Manfred Lexical-functional grammar (use of speech processing model to explain learner output)= teachability/processability hypothesis: Eğer bir öğrenciye hazır olmadan bir şeyleri öğretmeye çalışırsanız öğrenme gerçekleşmez. (seviye seviye gitmeli) Processability theory states that learners restructure their L2 knowledge systems in an order of which they are capable at their stage of development. For instance, In order to acquire the correct morphological and syntactic forms for English questions, learners must transform declarative English sentences. They do so by a series of stages, consistent across learners. 45 THORNDIKE Edward L. Neil NAIMAN'ın iyi öğrenci karakterine ek olarak: autonomous, creative, intelligent guesser, creating opportunities for practice, accepting errors as normal, use contextual clues, genel anlamı sözlüğe bakmadan kavrama, telaffuzda zorlansa da iletişim kurma. (Patsy LIGHTBOWN, Nina SPADA da benzer şeyler söylemişler. Bak.: Tony WRIGHT, Keith WILLING) Noticing Hypothesis: L2 öğrenenler dil yapısını yeterince gördüklerinde onu farkederler. Bu karşılaşmanın bir yolu öğretmenin öğretmesi ve ilgiyi o yapıya çekmesidir. (Ayrıca reklamlar, TV, filmler vs. de bunu yapar) Salient (yani attracting attention) daha çok ilgilerini çeker. Örenciler L2 kullanmaya ihtiyaçları olduğunu bildiklerinde dili edinir. L2 yapılarını sıralı öğrenmek yerine communicative task içinde anlama dayalı bağlamlar içinde daha iyi kavrarlar. (Bak.: Dick ALWRIGHT, Michael Long, Ivan ILLICH) Behaviorist. Operant conditioning= Focused on observable behavior. Learning results from a change in overt behavior. (Bak.: J.B.WATSON, PAVLOV, THORNDIKE, F.BACON, J.LOCKE) Swain's output hypothesis: Meaningful output (by Ss) is important. Vs. Input hypothesis of KRASHEN Natural Approach'u Krashen'la yayınlamıştır. (Bak.: Krashen) Behaviorist. Klasik koşullanma ilkesini ilk ortaya atan kişi. Haz temelli bağlaşımcılık/connectionism; deneme yanılma (haz varsa devam). Hazırbulunuşluk, tekrar, etki (Haz güçlü mü değil mi). Uyarıcı ve tepkinin sinirsel bağla bağlandığını düşünür: Connectionism (Bak.: Francis BACON, PAVLOV, SKINNER, WATSON, THORNDIKE; aksi görüş için CHOMSKY) 46 VYGOTSKY Lev Social Constructivist. Viygotsky's socio-cultural theory: He puts language and social interaction at the center. Intellectual and language development occur by social interaction with people. ZPD is the distance between what children can do with help of others and what they can accomplish on their own. Cognitive Development is related to social development (Bak.: Wertsch) Scaffolding'in başarılı olabilmesi için kritik dönem ZPD. Vygotsky bütün öğrenmelerin social interaction içinde yardımlaşarak gerçekleşeceğini savunmuş. Öğrenme ona göre 'assisted performance'tır. Daha bilgili birinin yardımcı olması (scaffolding: bak.: Jerome BRUNER). (Bak.: Krashen and i + 1) 47 WATSON J.B. & Ragner Father of behaviorism. Çocuğu kedi varken demire çekiçle vurarak korkutuyor, çocuk tüm kedilerden korkar hale geliyor. Asıl amacı bu korkuyu söndürmek ama başaramıyor. Klasik koşullanmayla korkuları yenmeye odaklı. 49 WILLING Keith 50 WRIGHT Tony 51 PREPARED BY KENANAKARSLAN Visit: www.kenanakarslan.com 48 WERTSCH Constructivist. Socio-cultural Theory'nin çıktığı nokta (bak.:Lev VYGOTSKY) : World seen by children and adults. There is a difference. The difference is ZPD (Bak.: Lev VYGOTSKY; Jerome BRUNER). T should identify it and find where the S is in this zone and build upon it through scaffolding (Bak.: Jerome BRUNER) process. Start from what the Ss know, anchor new items on past experience. Dört öğrenci kategorisi: 1- Convergers: Solitary ones, independent, confident, analytic, cool, pragmatic 2- Conformists: Focus on learning about language over learning to use it,dependent on authority, work in non-communicative classrooms doing what they are told. They like well-organized Ts 3- Concrete learners: Like conformists but enjoy social aspects of learning. Both use and communication= Enjoy games and group work 4- Communicative: Language use oriented. Comfortable out of class. Confident, willing to take risks, social interaction, happy without guidance of T. Ayrıca Bak.: Neil NAIMAN, Joan RUBIN and Irene THOMPSON, Tony WRIGHT) Dört öğrenci tipi tanımlamıştır. 1- Enthusiast, 2- Oracular (Focus on T + but more on personal goals, 3- Participator= concentrate on group goals, 4- rebel (satisfaction of his personal goals. Bak.: Neil NAIMAN, Joan RUBIN and Irene THOMPSON, Keith WILLING Marion DIAMOND, Robert SYLWESTER, Susan KOVALIK= bunlar brain-based learning'ciler THEORIES OF LEARNING 1- BEHAVIORISM (Observable habti/behavior) 2- COGNITIVISM (unobservable internal/mental processes) 3- HUMANISM (whole person: intellect + emotion + spiritual needs, Ss are humans first. 4- CONSTRUCTIVISM (Knowledge is constructed both socially and cognitively) LINGUISTIC VIEWS 1- TRADITIONAL VIEW (prescriptive, written language over spoken, Spoken language is imperfect, L is tool for 2- STRUCTURALIST VIEW (prescriptive + descriptive. L is structurally related items to convey meaning 3- GENERATIVE TRANSFORMATIVE VIEW (Chomsky, cognitivist view) 4- COMMUNICATIVE VIEW